JOURNALISM AND MASS COMMUNICATION

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Mass communication

© Kalyani Suresh

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Journalism and Mass Communication

Organization of chapters:

The topics are arranged in a sequence most commonly used to teach the material in college courses.

Chapter 1: Development of human communication

Chapter 2: Theories of Communication

Chapter 3: Uses of mass media

Chapter 4: Communication skills

Chapter 5: Journalistic Writing

Chapter 6: Changes in the Social and Economic Scenario

Chapter 7: Corporate communication

Chapter 8: Issues in Journalism and Mass Communication

Chapter 9: Broadcast communication

Chapter 10: Communication in the e-world - Issues

Chapter 11: Journalism, Public Opinion and Civil Society

Chapter 12:

Chapter 13:

Chapter 14:

Chapter 15:

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Journalism and Mass Communication

© 2003 Kalyani Suresh

CHAPTER 1:

Development of Human Communication

The Meaning of Communication

Communication is an ever continuing process and an integral part of the world of all living things. The need for communication is as basic as the hunger for food and drink, perhaps even more so. It is an individual as well as a social need.

Derived form the Latin word communis , meaning common, communication is a synonym for interchange, dialogue, sharing, interaction or communion. It is the passing of meaningful messages and the receiving of feedback. The Encyclopedia Britannica defines communication as ‘the exchange of meaning between individuals or groups through a common system of symbols or language’.

Denis McQuail (“Towards a Sociology of Mass Communication, 1975) sees ‘human communication’ as the sending of meaningful messages from one person to another. These messages could be oral or written, visual or olfactory. He also includes laws, practices, customs, ways of dressing, gestures, military parades and flags as methods of communication.

Human communication went through different stages of development. At first this development was driven by the process of mankind’s evolution from the lower species, later it was driven by technological human progress.

Historical Survey of Communication:

The Age of Signs and Signals

The Age of Speech and Language

The Age of Writing

The Age of Printing

The Mass Communication Age

The Age of Information Revolution

1. The Age of Signs and Signals

Prehistoric humans were physically unable to talk. Communication was limited and determined by instincts. It was the age of signs and signals - drum messages, smoke signals, music, dance etc.

2. The Age of Speech and Language

Man’s first achievement was speech and language. It gave him an eminent position over others. Growth of different languages gave birth to different expressions that denoted distinctions within communities. Certain languages acquired the traits of others, e.g., the language of conquerors was absorbed into the local dialect. This then became the language of administration and commerce.

3. The Age of Writing

About 5,000 years ago, hieroglyphic writing was developed by the Mayans and the Chinese. They used pictures with a standardized meaning. The Sumerians developed a different form of writing that represented sounds by symbols. This allowed information to be stored and for traditions to be passed on in writing. Clay, stone and later papyrus were developed and used as portable media. Writing gave permanence to the spoken language. Writing was slow to develop because the clergy, who were the seats of power, wanted it to be their sole privilege.

4. The Age of Print

In the 1st century A.D, China invented paper. In the 8th century the Arab world began to manufacture paper. In the 15th century, the Gutenberg press was invented and printing began in Europe. As a consequeSnce, information could be copied much faster and with far fewer mistakes than before. Availability of information was no longer restricted to the Roman Church and to nobility, but open to a wider section of European societies. This was the basis for further historical development that culminated in the Thirty-Years-War. Books were followed by the development of pamphlets and then newspapers in the 17th century. Some newspapers began to be edited by the then subjugated Asians and Africans in spite of severe opposition. Revolutionary journals began to see the light of day and enjoyed wide readership.

5. The Mass Communication Age

In the 19th century, communication was determined by several media forms. Print media, especially newspapers, were supplemented by telegraph and telephone. The introduction of radio, film and television in the 20th century saw the emergence of the Mass Communication era.

6. The Age of Information Revolution

At present, we are living amidst an information revolution. Integrated multimedia applications are now possible due to networks established from the development of digital communication technology. Hypertext structures form the basis for communication and navigation within the system.

CONCLUSIONS

Communication is a carrier of a social process and man is a social being because of communication.

Communication influences others and in turn is influenced by them.

Communication gives people a sense of belonging and reduces loneliness and frustration by helping people adapt to their environment.

The communication revolution has marched along with the industrial revolution and the media has been shaped by powerful economic and social forces, such as the rise of democracy.

Next: Theories of Communication

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CHAPTER 2:

Theories of Communication

Chapter 1 focused on the developmental stages of Communication and summed up Communication as a complex and dynamic process leading to the evolution of meaning.

The study of communication and mass media has led to the formulation of many theories: structural and functional theories believe that social structures are real and function in ways that can be observed objectively; cognitive and behavioral theories tend to focus on psychology of individuals; interactionist theories view social life as a process of interaction; interpretive theories uncover the ways people actually understand their own experience; and critical theories are concerned with the conflict of interests in society and the way communication perpetuates domination of one group over another .

The earliest theories were those propounded by Western theorists Siebert, Paterson and Schramm in their book Four Theories Of the Press (1956). These were termed "normative theories" by McQuail in the sense that they "mainly express ideas of how the media ought to or can be expected to operate under a prevailing set of conditions and values." Each of the four original or classical theories is based on a particular political theory or economic scenario.

I) CLASSICAL THEORIES

·        Authoritarian Theory

According to this theory, mass media, though not under the direct control of the State, had to follow its bidding. Under an Authoritarian approach in Western Europe, freedom of thought was jealously guarded by a few people (ruling classes), who were concerned with the emergence of a new middle class and were worried about the effects of printed matter on their thought process. Steps were taken to control the freedom of expression. The result was advocacy of complete dictatorship. The theory promoted zealous obedience to a hierarchical superior and reliance on threat and punishment to those who did not follow the censorship rules or did not respect authority. Censorship of the press was justified on the ground that the State always took precedence over the individual's right to freedom of expression.

This theory stemmed from the authoritarian philosophy of Plato (407 - 327 B.C), who thought that the State was safe only in the hands of a few wise men. Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679), a British academician, argued that the power to maintain order was sovereign and individual objections were to be ignored. Engel, a German thinker further reinforced the theory by stating that freedom came into its supreme right only under Authoritarianism.

The world has been witness to authoritarian means of control over media by both dictatorial and democratic governments.

·        Libertarianism or Free Press Theory

This movement is based on the right of an individual, and advocates absence of restraint. The basis of this theory dates back to 17th century England when the printing press made it possible to print several copies of a book or pamphlet at cheap rates. The State was thought of as a major source of interference on the rights of an individual and his property. Libertarians regarded taxation as institutional theft. Popular will (vox populi) was granted precedence over the power of State.

Advocates of this theory were Lao Tzu, an early 16th century philosopher, John Locke of Great Britain in the17th century, John Milton, the epic poet ("Aeropagitica") and John Stuart Mill, an essayist ("On Liberty"). Milton in Aeropagitica in 1644, referred to a self righting process if free expression is permitted "let truth and falsehood grapple." In 1789, the French, in their Declaration Of The Rights Of Man, wrote "Every citizen may speak, write and publish freely." Out of such doctrines came the idea of a "free marketplace of ideas." George Orwell defined libertarianism as "allowing people to say things you do not want to hear". Libertarians argued that the press should be seen as the Fourth Estate reflecting public opinion.

What the theory offers, in sum, is power without social responsibility.

·        Social Responsibility Theory

Virulent critics of the Free Press Theory were Wilbur Schramm, Siebert and Theodore Paterson. In their book Four Theories Of Press, they stated "pure libertarianism is antiquated, outdated and obsolete." They advocated the need for its replacement by the Social Responsibility theory. This theory can be said to have been initiated in the United States by the Commission of The Freedom Of Press, 1949. The commission found that the free market approach to press freedom had only increased the power of a single class and has not served the interests of the less well-off classes. The emergence of radio, TV and film suggested the need for some means of accountability. Thus the theory advocated some obligation on the part of the media to society. A judicial mix of self regulation and state regulation and high professional standards were imperative.

Social Responsibility theory thus became the modern variation in which the duty to one’s conscience was the primary basis of the right of free expression.

·        Soviet Media/Communist Theory

This theory is derived from the ideologies of Marx and Engel that "the ideas of the ruling classes are the ruling ideas". It was thought that the entire mass media was saturated with bourgeois ideology. Lenin thought of private ownership as being incompatible with freedom of press and that modern technological means of information must be controlled for enjoying effective freedom of press.

The theory advocated that the sole purpose of mass media was to educate the great masses of workers and not to give out information. The public was encouraged to give feedback as it was the only way the media would be able to cater to its interests.

Two more theories were later added as the "four theories of the press" were not fully applicable to the non-aligned countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, who were committed to social and economic development on their own terms. The two theories were:

1.      Development Communication Theory

The underlying fact behind the genesis of this theory was that there can be no development without communication. Under the four classical theories, capitalism was legitimized, but under the Development communication theory, or Development Support Communication as it is otherwise called, the media undertook the role of carrying out positive developmental programmes, accepting restrictions and instructions from the State. The media subordinated themselves to political, economic, social and cultural needs. Hence the stress on "development communication" and "development journalism". There was tacit support from the UNESCO for this theory. The weakness of this theory is that "development" is often equated with government propaganda.

2.      Democratization/Democratic Participant Media Theory

This theory vehemently opposes the commercialization of modern media and its top-down non-participant character. The need for access and right to communicate is stressed. Bureaucratic control of media is decried.

2) MAGIC BULLET/ HYPODERMIC NEEDLE/ STIMULUS RESPONSE THEORY

Before the first World War, there was no separate field of study on Communication, but knowledge about mass communication was accumulating. An outcome of World War I propaganda efforts, the Magic Bullet or Hypodermic Needle Theory came into existence. It propounded the view that the mass media had a powerful influence on the mass audience and could deliberately alter or control peoples' behaviour.

Klapper (1960) formulated several generalizations on the effects of mass media. His research findings are as follows: "Mass-media ordinarily does not serve as a necessary and sufficient cause of audience effect, but rather functions through a nexus of mediating factors and influences. These mediating factors render mass-communication as a contributory agent in a process of reinforcing the existing conditions."

The main mediating factors which he considers responsible for the functions and effects of mass communications are
- selective exposure i.e., people's tendency to expose themselves to those mass communications which are in agreement with their attitudes and interests; and
- selective perception and retention i.e., people's inclination to organize the meaning of mass communication messages into accord with their already existing views.

3) TWO STEP FLOW THEORY

In the early 40"s, before the invention of television, Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Goudet conducted an American survey on mass campaigns. The study revealed that informal social relationships had played a part in modifying the manner in which individuals selected content from the media campaign. The study also indicated that ideas often flowed from the radio and newspapers to opinion leaders and from them to the less active sections of society. Thus, informal social groups have some degree of influence on people and mould the way they select media content and act on it.

Figure 2.1

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Source: CIA Advertising at www.ciadvertising.org/ortega/Theories.htm (used by permission)

4) ONE STEP FLOW THEORY

This theory simply stated that mass communication media channels communicate directly to the mass audience without the message being filtered by opinion leaders.

5) MULTI STEP FLOW THEORY

This was based on the idea that there are a number of relays in the communication flow from a source to a large audience.

6) USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY

This theory propounded by Katz in 1970, is concerned with how people use media for gratification of their needs. An outcome of Abraham Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs, it propounds the fact that people choose what they want to see or read and the different media compete to satisfy each individual’s needs.

In the hierarchy of needs, there are five levels in the form of a pyramid with the basic needs such as food and clothing at the base and the higher order needs climbing up the pyramid. The fulfillment of each lower level need leads to the individual looking to satisfy the next level of need and so on till he reaches the superior-most need of self-actualization.

Figure 2.2

Source :William G Huitt - Valdosta University at chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/ (used by permission)

The Uses and Gratifications approach reminds us that people use media for many purposes. As media users become increasingly confronted with choices, this approach should direct our attention to the audience. Lull's television research found that families used television for communication facilitation, relationship building, intimacy, and for structuring the day. In general researchers have found four kinds of gratifications:

                    1. Information - we want to find out about society and the world- we want to satisfy our curiosity. This would fit the news and documentaries which both give us a sense that we are learning about the world.
                   2. Personal Identity - we may watch the television in order to look for models for our behavior. So, for example, we may identify with characters that we see in soap opera. The characters help us to decide what feel about ourselves and if we agree with their actions and they succeed we feel better about ourselves.
                   3. Integration and Social Interaction - we use the media in order to find out more about the circumstances of other people. Watching a show helps us to empathize and sympathize with the lives of others so that we may even end up thinking of the characters in programme as friends.
4. Entertainment - sometimes we simply use the media for enjoyment, relaxation or just to fill time.

Riley and Riley (1951) found that children in peer groups used adventure stories from the media for group games while individual children used media stories for fantasizing and daydreaming. The study thus found that different people use the same messages from the media for different purposes.

Katz replaced the question "what do media do to people?" with the question "what do people do with the media?" Katz, Gurevitch & Hass found that the media are used by
individuals to meet the following specific needs :

Cognitive needs (acquiring information, knowledge and understanding);
Affective needs (emotional, pleasurable experience);
Personal integrative needs (strengthening self image);
Social integrative needs (strengthening self image);
Tension release needs (escape and diversion)

McQuail, Blumler and Brown suggested the following individual needs categories:

1) Diversion (emotional release)
2) Personal Relationships (substitute of media for companionship).
3) Personal identity or individual psychology (value reinforcement, self understanding.)
4) Surveillance (information that may help an individual accomplish tasks.)

B. Rubin and Bantz (1989) studied the uses and gratifications of "new technology" by examining VCR use. They found the following motives for VCR use:
1) library storage of movies and shows
2) watching music videos
3) Using exercise tapes
4) renting movies
5) letting children view
6) time-shifting
7) Socializing by viewing with others
8) Critical viewing including TV watching and studying tapes

7) SPIRAL OF SILENCE THEORY

Propounded by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, this theory states that the media publicizes opinions that are mainstream and people adjust their opinions according to their perceptions to avoid being isolated. Individuals who perceive their own opinion as being accepted will express it, whilst those who think themselves as being a minority, suppress their views. Innovators and change agents are unafraid to voice different opinions, as they do not fear isolation.

Figure 2.3

Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

8) CONSISTENCY THEORIES (1950s)

Festinger formulated the consistency theories that talked about people’s need for consistency in their beliefs and judgments. In order to reduce dissonance created by inconsistencies in belief, judgments and action people expose themselves to information that is consistent with their ideas and actions, and they shut out other communications.

9) McCOMBS AND SHAW"S AGENDA SETTING THEORY

This theory puts forth the ability of the media to influence the significance of events in the public's mind. The media set the agenda for the audience's discussion and mentally order and organize their world. The theory is consistent with a "use and gratification" approach. McCombs and Shaw assert that the agenda-setting function of the media causes the correlation between the media and public ordering of priorities. The people most affected by the media agenda are those who have a high need for orientation

10) Media Dependency Theory

Developed by Ball-Rokeach and DeFluer, the key idea behind this theory is that audiences depend on media information to meet needs and reach goals, and social institutions and media systems interact with audiences to create needs, interests, and motives in the person. The degree of dependence is influenced by the number and centrality of information functions and social stability. Some questions that this theory   raised were:
Do media create needs?
Do people turn to media to achieve gratification and satisfy needs?
Are media needs personal, social, cultural, political, or all of these?
"The media are our friends"??

11) STEPHENSON"S PLAY THEORY

Play is an activity pursued for pleasure. The daily withdrawal of people into the mass media in their after hours is a matter of subjectivity. The effect of mass communication is not escapism nor seducing the masses. Rather it is seen as anti-anxiety producing, and are regarded as communication-pleasure.

12) MODELING BEHAVIOUR THEORY

Behaviors which are modeled from media experiences can become habitual if found useful and/or if they are reinforced in the environment. This is not about violent or criminal behavior.

13) STALAGMITE THEORIES

These theories suggest that mediated experiences induce long term effects that are very difficult to measure. The effects are like stalagmite drippings building up over time. Meaning Theory and the Cultivation Theory are two of the most significant Stalagmite theories.

MEANING THEORY
Media experiences mould meanings by putting things in a particular framework. Does "NYPD Blue" depict the real world of New York City police detectives? Questions like this are coming from a Meaning Theory focus on media.

CULTIVATION THEORY
George Gerbner tried to determine the influence of television on viewers" ideas of the environment they lived in. He found that dominance of TV created a common view of the world and that it homogenized different cultures. TV portrayed the society as a bad place to live in leading to people becoming distrustful of the world. Over time, particular symbols, images, messages, meanings become dominant and are absorbed as the truth. Cultural stereotypes, ways of assessing value and hierarchies are established.

14) Diffusion of innovations theory

Pioneered in 1943 by Bryce Ryan and Neil Gross of Iowa State University this theory traces the process by which a new idea or practice is communicated through certain channels over time among members of a social system. The model describes the factors that influence people's thoughts and actions and the process of adopting a new technology or idea.

15) Social learning theory

Formulated by Albert Bandura at Stanford University, this specifies that mass-media messages give audience members an opportunity to identify with attractive characters that demonstrate behavior, engage emotions, and allow mental rehearsal and modeling of new behavior. The behavior of models in the mass media also offers vicarious reinforcement to motivate audience members' adoption of the behavior.

Baran and Davis (2000) classify mass communication theories into three broad categories:
1. microscopic theories that focus on the everyday life of people who process information - for example, uses and gratifications, active audience theory, and reception studies;
2. middle range theories that support the limited effects perspective of the media - for example, information flow theory, diffusion theory, and
3. macroscopic theories that are concerned with media's impact on culture and society - for example, cultural studies theory.

Theories of mass communication have always focused on the "cause and effects" notion, i.e. the effects of the media and the process leading to those effects, on the audience's mind. Harold Lasswell and Berelson have succinctly expressed this idea. Lasswell's essential question is timeless (1949): "Who says what in what channel to whom with what effects?" Berelson said: "Some kinds of communication, on some kinds of issues, brought to the attention of some kinds of people, under some kinds of conditions, have some kinds of effects." (1949).

Figure 2.5

Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

Wilbur Schramm stated: "In fact, it is misleading to think of the communication process as starting somewhere and ending somewhere. It is really endless. We are little switchboard centers handling and rerouting the great endless current of information.... " (Schramm W.1954) quoted in McQuail & Windahl (1981)

16) The Osgood and Schramm circular model emphasizes the circular nature of communication.

The participants swap between the roles of source/encoder and receiver/decoder.

Figure 2.6

Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

17) Gerbner's General Model

Gerbner's General Model also emphasizes the dynamic nature of human communication.

Figure 2.7

Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

18) the Shannon-Weaver Model.

Shannon and Weaver produced a general model of communication known after them as the Shannon-Weaver Model. It involved breaking down an information system into sub-systems so as to evaluate the efficiency of various communication channels and codes. They propose that all communication must include six elements:

Source
Encoder
Channel
Message
Decoder
Receiver

This model is often referred to as an “information model" of communication. A drawback is that the model looks at communication as a one-way process. That is remedied by the addition of the feedback loop. Noise indicates those factors that disturb or otherwise influence messages as they are being transmitted

Figure 2.8

Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

19) Berlo's S-M-C-R Model

Berlo"s SMCR (SOURCE, MESSAGE, CHANNEL, and RECEIVER) model focuses on the individual characteristics of communication and stresses the role of the relationship between the source and the receiver as an important variable in the communication process. The more highly developed the communication skills of the source and the receiver, the more effectively the message will be encoded and decoded.

Berlo's model represents a communication process that occurs as a SOURCE drafts messages based on one's communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social and cultural system. These MESSAGES are transmitted along CHANNELS, which can include sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. A RECEIVER interprets messages based on the individual's communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social and cultural system. The limitations of the model are its lack of feedback

Figure 2.9

Source: from the Internet

Terms used in the chapter:

Mass-media:
It is a collective phrase that represents not only the press, cinema, radio, television and internet, but also to some extent, books magazines, pamphlets , direct mail literature, posters, folk media, and natural communication methods such as rumours, education and preaching. It is so termed because its reach extends to vast heterogeneous populations. Generally the mass media employ technological means to communicate to the masses. They are founded on the idea of mass production and distribution. Wiebe defined mass media as those readily available to the general public.

Selective attention:
The media are full of competing messages. The process of screening vast amount of information in which one has no interest through mental filters is called selective attention, for example, an adult will be more tuned to listening to the news while a child would rather watch a cartoon show.

Selective perception:
This is the tendency to interpret communication messages in terms of one"s existing attitudes. People of distinct psychological character same media content in different ways. This depends on factors such as age, values, family, opinions etc. Selective perception is influenced by social relationships.

Selective retention:
The ability of an individual to retain certain messages in his mind while ignoring others is called selective retention. This is influenced by various psychological and physiological factors such as choice, values, culture, emotions etc.

Selective exposure:
Some individuals are exposed to certain media effects/messages while some are not. This screening aspect depends on many factors such as reach of media, accessibility, age, cultural acceptability, taboos, etc.

Opinion leaders/change agents:
The opinions of people in a group are influenced by what they hear from "opinion leaders". An individual who is a member of a group manifests certain characteristics in his thinking and behaviour that contribute to the formation of "public opinion". The opinion of the leader is based on rational thinking due to education and experience. They weigh the pros and cons of the information they receive and then give their judgement on it.

Encoder:
In the process of communication, the sender or source of the message is referred to as the encoder.

Decoder:
The person receiving the message and decodes it is referred to as the decoder.

Feedback:
Feedback, a term form cybernetics, the study of messages. It refers to an inquiry, response or experiment. Feedback can be positive (when the required result is achieved) or negative; instantaneous(when the response is immediate) or delayed. Feedback is used to gauge the effectivenss of a particular message put forth or situation that has taken place.

Noise:
In all communication, there is a sender, a message/communication and a receiver. The meaning of a message is greatly dependent on the culture in which it is transmitted. The sender encodes a message, the receiver decodes it. Between the sender, the message and receiver, noise gets in the way and complicates the process. A noiseless communication does not exist. There always is some kind of noise entering the communication. Noise can be physical noise for example static or psychological i.e. when culture, taboos or values come into play to disrupt the normal transmission process of communication. Misunderstanding of a particular message i.e. distortion of meaning is a form of noise, example, the game of Chinese Whisper"a person starts off with a particular message and the original message may be distorted by the time it comes to the final player.

Previous: Development of human communication

Next: Uses of mass media

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Journalism and Mass Communication

© Kalyani Suresh

Chapter 3:

Uses and Effects of mass media

Chapter 2 focused on the various theories of communication and the effects that the tools of media have on the audiences.

This chapter will focus on the several types of communication classified on the basis of the social group in which it takes place and upon the technical tools used for its facilitation. The various types are:

Intrapersonal Communication

         Intrapersonal communication is one-way communication. Individual contemplation, internal reflection, prayers, etc. are types of intrapersonal communication. This type can also be termed as a form of internal persuasion. There are two types of messages, nonverbal and verbal. Examples of nonverbal communication are facial expressions, posture, gestures, tone of voice, touching, spacing and systematic use of time. Verbal communication can be divided into three disciplines; syntactics, semantics, and pragmatics.

In the persuasion context, one person is attempting to induce change in the belief, attitude, or behavior in one other person. For example: Jane persuading her sister Sarah to lend her pearls for Jane’s school party.

In the persuasion context, there are various theories that explain internal communication

Balance Theory
This theory advocated by Fritz Heider and Theodore Newcomb in 1946 states that when tensions arise between or inside people, they attempt to reduce these tensions through self-persuasion or trying to persuade others. Balance theory proposes that there are three ways in which a person can feel balance. First the source and receiver can both dislike as well as like each other, so they experience comfort and balance. Second, the source and receiver can have a positive attitude toward an object or idea and display positive feelings toward one another, therefore experiencing comfort and balance. Third, the source and the receiver can disagree about an idea or object and also dislike each other, therefore experiencing comfort because they know that they disagree about the values of certain objects or ideas.

Example: Mary likes to do things in a planned, orderly manner and Joe does not like orderliness in everything. Yet Mary likes Adam, and values their relationship therefore this system is now in imbalance. If Mary would change her attitude about orderliness in everything, this system would be in balance.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory
This theory propagated by Leon Festinger in 1962 says that human beings often have conflicting beliefs with actions they take, or other beliefs they have. This dissonance creates a tension and tension reduction is automatically sought by changing our evaluations by some degree. Cognitive Dissonance is when you have two good choices and you make your decision then you find yourself unsure or in doubt about the choice you made. The theory of Cognitive Dissonance implies that when there is tension we change a belief or an action. Many times selective exposure is used which prevents dissonance. This theory also implies that we experience more dissonance when the issue is more important, when we put off a decision and the decision is permanent.

Example: When marketers want to persuade their audience to buy a product they must convince them that this is a good action and if their beliefs do not match this action, they must persuade them to change their beliefs. For instance if a health drink is introduced in the market, and some consumers feel that it is really not essential that they switch over to the new product from their usual cereal, the advertisers will have to focus on the fact the health drink contains health benefits such as cholesterol fighting, fat reducing ingredients that their usual cereal lacks.

Information Manipulation Theory (IMT)

Theorist Steve A. McCornack propounded this theory in 1992. This states that a speaker purposefully and covertly violates one of the conversational maxims of quantity, quality, relation and manner with the intention of deceiving his/her listener.

Example: X has an important school project due Wednesday. His professor does not accept late papers. Monday night he went to the soccer match and didn't start on the paper. Tuesday night he browsed the net for information related to the project and managed to almost finish the project. Wednesday morning, X overslept and arrived only after class was over. He goes to see his professor immediately after. How will he answer his professor on why he wasn't in class to turn in his paper? Quantity: "I am sorry professor. I overslept." Quality: "Our power got cut and my alarm didn't go off." Relation: "I've had a really bad week. I had a fight with my roommate, I forgot to pay the electricity bill, the electricity was turned off and my boss has threatened to fire me if I’m late again." Manner: "I badly need to score well in this project. My paper was already finished, I just overslept".

The Inoculation Theory (1961) by William McGuire states that inoculation is used to describe the attribution of greater resistance to individuals or the process of supplying information to receivers before the communication process takes place in the hope that the information would make the receiver more resistant. This theory stresses on the importance of the nature of the presentation of the message. One method involves passive reading in which receivers read the defensive material. Another method is to read the material and underline the passages relating to the arguments presented in the defense. Next, experimenters supply an outline where the defensive material is to be written out. The last method is to write out the arguments without any help.

Example: McGuire’s basic method included constructing a persuasive message attacking a cultural truism such as, “An apple a day, keeps the doctor away.†This message would contain statements like “eating too many apples can cause digestive problems.†Prior to this message, material would be introduced that should strengthen the belief in the truism.

Rank's Model of Persuasion, 1976 (Theorist: Hugh Rank) states that persuaders use two major strategies to achieve their goals. These strategies are nicely set into two main schemas known as (1) intensify, and (2) downplay. The persuader will do this in one of four methods.
1) Intensify their own strong points.
2) Intensify the weak points of the opposition.
3) Downplay their own weak points.
4) Downplay the strong points of the opposition.

Example: While arguing about their favorite movies, Damien continues to insist to Joey that the Terminator movies were much better than the Matrix movies. Rank's Model contends that Damien will use one of four main strategies to argue his point to Joey. He will either: 1) Stress the great performances that were given by Terminator lead actor Arnold Schwarzeneger, while pointing out the acclaim that he received for the movies, OR 2) Stress what he believed was poor acting by Matrix lead actor Keanu Reeves, OR 3) Downplay the weak points of the Terminator movies, OR 4) Downplay the terrific performance by the Matrix actors.

Interpersonal Communication is an interactional process between two people, either face-to-face or through mediated forms. It is, in other words, a dialogue or conversation that is personal, direct and intimate. A lot depends on the relationship between the two individuals, their equality of status, the socio-cultural environment in which the exchange takes place etc. When a mechanical device ‘mediates’ in an interpersonal exchange, it is termed ‘interpersonal mediated communication’. Feedback is instantaneous and easy to measure. The following important aspects are stressed on:
Relational (Qualitative)
Communication in which the roles of sender and receiver are shared
by two people simultaneously in order to create meaning.
Situational (Contextual)
Communication that occurs between two people in a specific context.
Quantitative
Dyadic interactions, including impersonal communication.
Functional (Strategic)
Communication for the purpose of achieving interpersonal goals.

Group Communication is an interactional process that occurs among
three or more people interacting in an attempt to achieve commonly recognized goals either face-to-face or through mediated forms. The larger the group, the less intimate and personal is the possibility of exchange. Feedback is the key word here. Feedback is not instantaneous and is difficult to measure.

Groupthink is an important aspect in group communication. This occurs when a homogenous highly cohesive group is so concerned with maintaining unanimity that they fail to evaluate all their alternatives. Groupthink members see themselves as part of an in-group working against an out-group opposed to their goals. Groups engaged in groupthink tend to make faulty decisions when compared to the decisions that could have been reached using a fair, open, and rational decision-making process. Group thinking groups tend to:
1- fail to adequately determine their objectives and alternatives,
2- fail to adequately assess the risks associated with the group's decision,
3- fail to cycle through discarded alternatives to reexamine their worth after a majority of the group discarded the alternative,
4- not seek expert advice,
5- select and use only information that supports their position and conclusions, and does not make contingency plans in case their decision and resulting actions fail.

Group leaders can prevent groupthink by:
1- encouraging members to raise objections and concerns;
2- refraining from stating their preferences at the onset of the group's activities;
3- allowing the group to be independently evaluated by a separate group with a different leader;
4- splitting the group into sub-groups, each with different chairpersons, to separately generate alternatives, then bringing the sub-groups together to hammer out differences;
5- allowing group members to get feedback on the group's decisions from their own constituents;
6- seeking input from experts outside the group;
7- assigning one or more members to play the role of the devil's advocate;
8- requiring the group to develop multiple scenarios of events upon which they are acting, and contingencies for each scenario; and
9- calling a meeting after a decision consensus is reached in which all group members are expected to critically review the decision before final approval is given.

Mass Communication

Mass Communication represents the creation and sending of a homogeneous message to a large heterogeneous audience through the media. Mass communication studies the uses and effects of the media by many as opposed to the study of human interaction as in other communication contexts.

Group communication has now been extended by the tools of mass communication: the press, radio, television, video and cinema. A lot of discussion has been generated on the ˜power of the mass media (termed by Daniel Learner as a mobility multipliers and by Schramm as a magic multipliers).

A mass media, according to Schramm, is essentially a working group organized around some device for circulating the same message, at about the same time to large numbers of people. Mass media are founded on the idea of mass production and mass distribution.

Functions of the Mass Media

The following are the basic functions performed by the mass media:

1- Information: Surveillance of the environment relates to news about the happenings in society. The mass media carry out this function by keeping us informed about the latest events in and around the world.
2- Entertainment: Mass media help us relax with family and friends and pass time. They also fulfill our psychological and social needs.
3- Symbolic Function: Mass media provide a shared symbolic environment. George Gerbner sees television as the central symbol of American culture.
4- Development: The mass media in developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America perform the function of facilitators of ‘development communication’ focusing on the socio-economic needs of the backward sections of society.
5- Advertising: This is a commercial function that helps keep the economic status of a country healthy. At the same time it would be suicidal to let this function dominate over the other functions of the mass media.

Effects

The word effects connotes different meanings for different people. For example a sociologist talks about social effects. A psychologist has psychological effects in mind. while employing the term; an anthropologist - cultural effects, the advertiser - the market effects and so on.

Bernard Berelson arrived at the conclusion that some kinds of communication on some kinds of issues, brought to the attention of some kinds of people under some kind of conditions have some kinds of effects.

Theories of Media Effects

The Medium Not the Message
             Marshall McLuhan said the medium is the message. No matter what the contents of the programmes, he argued that the audiences will watch television, it commands their attention as no other medium has. Mass Communications are neither good nor bad, but rather mystical devices that possess powers to change the way humans lead their lives.

Reinforcement

McLuhan’s theory did not find total support. Joseph Klapper and other theorists believed in the reinforcement function of mass media. Only after reinforcing existing values and attitudes can programmes of the media be popular with the majority of social groups interested in perpetuating their own traditions and status.

Narcosis

          Lazarsfeld and Merton held that the mass media could not be relied upon to work for changes, even minor ones, in the social structure. They perceived in mass communication a narcotizing dysfunction that distracts and prevents audiences from facing real problems. Exposure to a flood of information serves to narcotize rather than energize the average audience. This theory is now outdated as the media today have a galvanizing effect in bringing about many revolutionary changes example, bringing about an end to the Vietnam War, bringing about Nixon’s exit through Watergate exposure etc.

Catharsis
           Seymour Feshbach, the main exponent of this theory, argued that the media may have a cathartic effect on the audiences and purges them of anti-social or unfulfilled desires and frustrations.

A study was conducted on a group of college students. They were subject to savage insults and criticisms by experimenters. A portion of the group was shown an aggressive film of a brutal boxing match; another portion was shown a dull control film. It was found that those students who had seen the aggressive film felt less hostile to their experimenters than those who had seen the control film.
But in a parallel study conducted by Berkovitz, it was found that the aggressive film was responsible for the aggressive response of the students. Other experiments have shown that children are likely to imitate violence in films.

Manipulation

The manipulation theory by Ernst Van Haag is an extreme view that states that mass communications are demeaning, depersonalizing instruments of manipulation. But it is to be noted that social and economic circumstances and not mass media alone foster such hedonism.

Windows on the World

        Edward Shils and David M. White are of the view that mass media constitute windows on the world dealing in new and popular culture that bring more of the good to more people than ever before in history. But White talks about the gate-keeper aspect of the editor who sees to it that only those events which he believes to be true should reach the audience.

Corruptive

Frederick Wertham also holds an extreme view that the content of the media is corruptive and inculcates materialism and anti-social behaviour towards others.

Receiver Factors

Several factors determine media influence. The role played by primary, secondary and reference groups and by public opinion leaders are important. Receiver factors are related intimately to every aspect of the personality of the audience and must not be considered in isolation. The main receiver factors are attitudes, beliefs, opinions, interests, motivation and the manner of processing, retaining and rejecting of information.

Previous: Theories of Communication

Next: Communication skills

Top of Form

Journalism and Mass Communication

© Kalyani Suresh

CHAPTER 4:

Communication skills

In Chapter 3 we learnt about the various uses and effects of the mass media and some theories pertaining to the subject.

Chapter 4 and 5 focus on the communication skills needed for presenting news through the media with special reference to reporting and editing for press journalism.

REPORTING

The word ‘Journalism’ comes from the French word Jour meaning ‘day’. It is a recording of everyday events. In early times, the practice of keeping track of daily events in diaries was prevalent. When the need arose to let the entire world know of what was happening around them, it was decided to publish journals that contained news of public interest.

Producing a journal requires collecting of information, putting it together in readable form, printing it on paper and then selling it to the public. The last two steps are the most expensive areas. This capital-intensive business of producing journals is done by organizations having different ownership patterns.

Ownership can be 1) Sole Proprietorship e.g Rupert Murdoch’s chain of newspapers, TV stations etc dominating 25-30% of the world’s communication (2) Public Limited Companies, wherein shares are offered to the public e.g. ‘The Times’ of Colombo that offered it shares to the public (3) Government owned e.g BBC where the government is the major player in the monopolies game; in the 60’s Sri Lanka nationalized its large newspaper houses which became government owned (4) Trusts e.g. ‘The Statesman’ , the last British owned paper in India. When the British pulled out of India, they did not want to sell the paper to a proprietor. They established a trust with 10 trustees with 2 business houses. (5) Co-operatives e.g. Reynolds News’ was a Sunday newspaper started by the British Co-operative movement (6) Political parties owned e.g London’s ‘Daily Worker” - owned by the Communist party Of Britain.

How Newspapers Are Run

             Newspapers generally have two sections 1) the Editorial section which is an expensive proposition to run, and 2) the Business section that brings in the revenue for the editorial section.
               The main sources of income for the newspaper are Advertising (through display ads, classifieds, Government notices etc) and Circulation (through retail sales or subscription). Conversely.

                       Administration and Production (cost of machinery, newsprint, building, infrastructure etc.) are its sources of expense.

The Editor of a newspaper must be a good man-manager. His work is to get his subordinates to work as a team. A newspaper organization has to have specialists but not necessarily one at the top as the editor.

The official set-up of a typical newspaper is as follows:

Editor

Assistant Editors

Assistant Editors are specialists. They do not have particular portfolios except for editorials and special features, and oversee a department such as the following.

1. 1)Business Dept.
2. (2) Sports Dept.
3. (3) News Dept.
4. (4)Sub-editing Dept.
5. (5) Features Dept.

Reporting - Editing - Writing

Newspapers have additional departments depending on the interest and size of the newspaper.

Each department has sub-editors and proof readers. The sub-editor has the following key roles to perform:
1- Guardian of language (i.e spelling, grammar, sentence construction etc.)
2- Guardian of newspaper policy (needs to read every word to ensure there is no double entendre etc.; whether policy is transgressed or not. He/she is the last guardian of policy before news goes to the press)
3- Guardian against libel
4- Guardian of style (every newspaper has a style book that has to be followed to the letter)
5- Guardian of Fact/Accuracy
6- Guardian of Budget
7- Editing or cutting copy for size or extent
8- Looking at layouts, headlines
9- Page make-up

The business and sports departments of a newspaper as their name suggests deal with business and sports news respectively. The sports department is a law unto itself as it deals with nothing other than sports items. In most sports departments, the sports sub-editors double as reporters. Most sports reporters are good writers.

The features department deals with a variety of articles ranging from puzzles to advertising features and articles by specialists. The features department also handles editorials.

The news department is the most important department of a newspaper. The word ‘news’ means fresh, factual information from every direction that serves a purpose, and is meant to increase public awareness. The news editor takes on the responsibility of selecting and delivering the news to the public.

The news department consists of :

- a News Editor
- a Chief Reporter
- Reporters
- Correspondents
- News Agencies
- Unsolicited news

Reporters are full time employees of the organization and their number varies according to the size of the newspaper.

Correspondents are classified according to their area of news coverage for example local correspondents, special correspondents (outstation senior correspondents who are specialists in their fields), foreign correspondents, part-time correspondents or stringers, sports correspondents, political, science, commercial, book review correspondents etc.

News agencies are organizations that gather, edit and supply news on a contract basis, for example Reuters. The news agencies’ filtering of news depends on what its target audience is. It has an entire staff working for it just like a newspaper, but without the printing machinery. Subscriptions to news agencies are of two types (a)full time (i.e. payment for full service), or (b)for a tailored service (selective service, i.e. only for sports news or business news etc.)

Unsolicited news are letters to editors from private and public sectors etc.

Reporters

The main source of news for a newspaper is the reporter. Reporting is the function of witnessing a statement of fact. Comment is free but facts are not. A reporter’s job is to report on facts.

It is easy to tell a good reporter from a poor one. The good one is fully prepared to do his job well. The poor one brushes off such mundane details as reading newspapers, checking names and addresses, asking questions about seemingly unimportant details, or carefully taking notes when he/she can.

Characteristics of a good reporter:
A good reporter must be:
1- emotionally detached
2- objective
3- competent
4- courageous
5- positive thinking
6- self-motivated
7- good listener
8- observer
9- disciplined
10- well-read and well-informed
11- inquisitive

The first requirement for a good reporter is news sense or nose for news. He/she must be able to spot newsworthy items from a mountain of information keeping in mind the target audience. There are various news elements that a reporter should know that defines the newsworthiness of a news item. They are:

1- Timeliness: This depends on immediacy. Time element defines freshness of news.
2- Proximity of Distance: The event that happens closer home is more newsworthy than a far away occurrence. This differs from paper to paper depending on its target audience.
3- Proximity of Ideology: News about Marxism in Marxist countries, Communism in Communist countries is always more newsworthy.
4- Proximity of Ethnicity: The news about the first Chinese in space is more newsworthy in China than anywhere else.
5- Prominence: Prominence of person (e.g. President Clinton is more newsworthy than a common man), place (e.g. news of a murder in a place of worship is more newsworthy than a murder elsewhere), technique ( a cleverly executed kidnapping of a VIP), numbers (sheer immensity of numbers) etc.
6- Oddity: It is said that when a dog bites a man, it is not news, but when a man bites a dog it becomes a front page story! Anything that is extraordinary or unusual becomes more newsworthy.
7- Sex: News about rape, sexual harassment, gender discrimination etc. becomes news
8- Consequence: The consequence of the news on its target audience (e.g. highlighting problems and demands of the laborer in a labour party newspaper)
9- Conflict: Could be a war or debate or even difference of opinion.
10- Human emotions: Love, jealousy, hate, anger etc. make good readership.
11- Progress: Anything newly achieved is news, e.g. Microsoft launching its latest technology.
12- Suspense: Waiting to find out what will happen next for e.g a cricket match to be continued the next day.

For a good reporter, the ability to think on one’s feet, digest analyze and pick up information in a sequential order is a must. He/she must possess humility and willingness to learn, must be an objective, balanced and fair person and have the ability to work under pressure.

A reporter is deployed according to the agenda on the assignment sheet. The assignment sheet is the journalist’s ‘order of battle’ in his daily campaign to cover all news fronts. Few reporters ever see the assignment sheet. Some are called and told their assignments, some call in to get them. No reporter gets a detailed guideline from the editor’s desk about how to do his job, except for some special assignment.

Reporters first join newspapers as general assignment reporters. Reporters are sent on what is known as their beat or area of news coverage. Beat reporters are assigned to a particular subject. A beat reporter should be responsible for everything in his beat, and also for what has been missed in his newspaper and for what has appeared in the rival newspaper. Sometimes 3 to 5 beat reporters are needed to cover a single beat, for example in courts, crime beats etc.

Ground Rules for Reporters

The four principal duties of a reporter are to tell the news accurately, explain what it means, protect his sources when necessary, and respect such confidences as he is willing to accept.

Attribution of News
News can be attributed to its sources. Too much attribution or unnecessary attribution can be damaging. There are many gradations of attribution. These are:

Off the record: Within certain broad limitations, everything told to reporters or learned by them is for publication, or on the record. One limitation is a specific agreement or understanding between a reporter and his/her source to withhold some news or keep it off the record’. Such material should have the approval of the reporters’ superiors, as it is a matter of principle. Responsible reporters and news media are also bound by the percepts of their laws or Constitution that regulate individual and corporate behaviour.

Attribution to a spokesperson: Earlier, editors use to insist on naming their source of news. The presence of an anonymous figure, who could not be described except in relation to what he represented was an affront to many reporters and editors. But nowadays, spokespersons’ have blossomed as authorities for news. Anonymous attribution is the most confusing yet common practice in journalism throughout the world today. It has become the key to the use of a lot of news for which nobody is the authority. Consequently, the reporters and news media take risks, for the only attribution of the so-called background news of ‘well-informed sources’, official sources’ , ‘diplomatic sources’, officials’ or no source at all, is nothing but the reporter’s name and the name of his/her organization.

Interviewing

The principal source of news of a highly individual nature is the interview. No rules for a standard interview have been written. The interview is the reporter’s best chance at a story. Interviews are as varied as the people who grant them, and depend on the journalistic ability of the people who conduct them. Interviews may be:

Man in the Street: It is the most common and most difficult types of interviews for a reporter to conduct. It is also the least accurate reflection of public sentiment. The reporter’s job is to win over the suspicious and often uncommunicative people and persuade them to talk with him/her. There are no shortcuts to the process of interviewing if one wants information. It takes time, perseverance patience, and the ability to listen sympathetically to all kinds of stories.

The Casual Interview: Such encounters are casual/accidental and often purposeless. Sometimes a casual meeting with a news source leads the source to say something, often without design, arousing the curiosity of the reporter. In the digging that follows, a major story may emerge.

The Personality Interview: This is often employed for lengthy profiles or features about people. Few newspapers are willing to give reporters the time needed for such efforts. As a result, the personality story often lacks depth, perspective and appeal.

News Interview: Such talks between the reporter and his/her sources generally take place on short notice. It may be arranged by the reporter or the source’s public relations representative. In such interviews the reporter has well-defined questions that are to be answered by the source.

Telephone Interview: This is an abbreviated version of the news interview. Because it is conducted through the telephone, the questions must be clear and well-defined.

The Prepared Question: When all else fails, reporters often prepare a list of questions and submit them to news sources, with a polite but urgent request for reply. This method has its disadvantages as there may be no response from the sources, but it is worth trying in a tight spot.

Regardless of what method a reporter employs, the first step should always be to identify himself/herself and the organization he/she represents. The business should be stated briefly. Surprises, insults and arrogance on the part of the reporter is unwarranted. Caution must be exercised against ‘note-taking’ except when it is desirable and necessary, should be observed in the interview. When a figure or a date or spelling must be noted, it should be done without ostentation and with a word of explanation. As soon as the interview is over, the reporter needs to make extensive notes that should form the basis for anything that is written.

There are a few essential aids for reporters:
1) The Diary: This is a book of assignments. Assignments are listed well in advance. It is maintained by the chief reporter or the news editor. Every event with its date of happening, time, reporter’s name, photographer’s name, speaker’s name etc is recorded. An active reporter may even enter the number of words and pictures in the report.
2) The Morgue: Another word for the library, it is a repository of dead information or the archives. It contains copies of old newspapers, rival newspapers of the same area; clippings of important people, events, subjects; photographs; dictionaries, encyclopedias, thesaurus, atlases; proceedings of legislatures etc.; reference books, year books etc. Earlier these materials used up a lot of space as these were not available in the condensed form. New technology has enabled the capsuling of such vast information in CDs and through microfilming. Every item is indexed and cross-indexed by the library staff.

Various beats in reporting include crime reporting, economic/business reporting, developmental reporting, political reporting, sports reporting etc.

COMMUNICATIVE SKILLS - EDITING

The term editing is a comprehensive one. It covers many functions, and means in the larger sense, making the copy or the reading matter free of mistakes of all kinds apart from indicating the headings, subheadings and typography. Only after this is done, the final copy is sent to the printer.

While the reporter is the eyes and ears of the newspaper, its, outside surveillance mechanism, the editor is its ‘gatekeeper’, a decision maker who decides what will be chosen and what will not to be passed along to the reader.

The Make-up of a Newspaper

The news editor ‘dummies’ the paper and guides the make-up men in the assembly of the items in the newspaper. The principles of sound news presentation through the newspaper have two chief poles. The first is typographic: an attractive combination of readable typefaces. The other is the layout - an attractive arrangement of materials on the page and throughout the newspaper. The basic materials that the editor works with in making decisions about makeup are body type, display type, art, and white space, which are arranged with the five principles of balance, focus, contrast, dynamics and unity.

Each page of a newspaper has columns. The number of columns differs from newspaper to newspaper, some have 8 columns, some have 6 and so on. The reader’s attention is best caught with the first page called ‘page one’ and the ‘split-page’ which initiates the second section of the first page. The following illustration explains the make-up of page one of a newspaper.

Source: http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/exp_lang/front_page_small.
Ministry of Education, Wellington, New Zealand"

The following can be seen on the page:

1- The font and style of the masthead, which flies the flag for the newspaper;

2- The use and impact of headlines and crossheads, which are subheadings between paragraphs;

3- The placement of the lead story;

4- The acknowledgment of reporters’ names (known as bylines) and of other sources, along with the dateline;

5- The use of photos with their explanatory captions;

6- The use of diagrams, tables, and other infographics, which summarise information into visual form;

7- The use of columns, boxes, stories going across the page;

8- The variety in presentation of type, including reversed type of white on black; the use of space, including white space, and other aspects of layout and presentation, which are explained in sections that follow

What Editing Does for Copy:
A copyreader does the following for a news story-
1- performs or facilitates composing and makeup operations
2- regularizes copy to conform to style of newspaper
3- adjusts story length to space requirements
4- detects and corrects errors
5- simplifies, corrects and clarifies language
6- amplifies meaning
7- makes stories fair and objective
8- restructures stories extensively when needed
9- alters story’s tone when needed
10- corrects copy for good taste

Editing to Save Space
Brevity is not only the soul of wit, it is the heart of readership. Studies in relation between length and readership show an inverse relationship, i.e. shorter the story, the more likely it is to be read.
Cutting, trimming, boiling and slashing are among the terms used in a newsroom for reducing stories in length. Most straight news stories are arranged in an inverted pyramid form with the most important part of the story coming first and the least important in the end. Thus editing for space becomes simplified as the story can be chopped off from the end, thus reducing comparatively unnecessary facts. Another way of saving space that involves no loss of wordage at all is by setting part of the story in smaller type, i.e. dropping the words from a higher point size to a lesser one, example from a 8 point to 6 point type.

The Point System
A French printer Pierre Simon Fournier established in 1837, a point system which with slight modifications is in use today. A point is one seventy-second of an inch. All type sizes are expressed in points. Type-size names were assigned specific sizes in points. Pica became a 12-point type. Nonpareil became 6-point. In terms of space, 72 points equals one inch, and 12 points equal one pica; the em is the square of any size of type. A piece of type has height, width and depth.

Justification is the term used for ‘spacing out to fill’. Lines are sometimes justified to fit the width of the column by adding or adjusting spacing between words. The computer-based automated typesetting justifies lines automatically. A refinement of justification is called ‘ kerning’, which opens or closes space between letters.

Editing Symbols: As in proof reading, certain well-known symbols are used while editing the copy. These are called editing symbols. They are used in the body of the copy, while proof reading symbols are used in the margins. Editing symbols are few in number and should not be confused with proof reading symbols which are numerous.

Editing The Text: While editing the reading matter or text, indications in respect of typography (make-up) and style of setting should be made in the left hand margin of the copy.

Headlines: Any line or collection of lines of display type that precedes a story and summarizes it can be called a headline. Headlines are built around action verbs, and use present tense to convey immediacy. Headlines for the reading matter may be written legibly at the top of the copy itself, specifying the point of type (size, capital letters - ‘caps’etc.), style (flush left, inverted pyramid etc.) and so on. The following examples illustrate the different types and styles:

18 Pt Caps Flush left

HEAVY RAINS LASH THE CITY

14 Pt Caps Flush Right

HEAVY RAINS LASH THE CITY

18 Pt Caps
Long-Short
-Long

HEAVY RAINS LASH THE CITY

14 Pt Caps
Stepped

HEAVY RAINS LASH THE CITY SINCE FRIDAY

18 Pt Caps
Inverted Pyramid

HEAVY RAINS LASH THE CITY SINCE FRIDAY

In the above examples, it will be noted that:
1) the style of the headline
2) the width of the headline in terms of columns, and
3) the point of type
are specified clearly for the guidance of the printer.

To summarize accurately the key facts of a complex story in a limited space, the headline writer must be a consummate artist. Headlines index parts of news of greatest interest to each reader. They tell the news to the reader of the headline alone. They convey to the reader the relative significance of the news by their varying the type, size and weight. They convey the relative seriousness of the news for e.g. through italics and various decorative typographical devices such as boxes. They make the newspaper attractive, and give it character and stability. They sell the newspaper. They should be objective, must have attribution of facts stated, should generally avoid abbreviations, should be accurate in tone quality, i.e. the tone of voice in which it is told, and should avoid ambiguity

Counting the Head: Constructing headlines that tell the story and also fit the space requires patience, flexibility and the ability to predict whether a given line will fit into the required space. Consequently the editor or computer must count every line. The older method of counting heads goes like this:

Count all small letters 1 except l, i, f, t, which count 1/2, and m and w, which count 1 and 1/2.
Count all capital letters 1 and 1/2, except I, which counts 1/2, and M and W, which count 2.
Count all punctuation marks 1/2, except the dash, question mark, dollar sign and percent sign which count 1.
Count all figures 1.
Count all spaces 1.

Sub-headings: These are not subsidiary headlines, they are not in fact headlines at all, even though they are written in headline form. They are actually typographic devices used inserted in the body of the text primarily to break up large body of masses of straight matter. Sub-headings should be short containing not more than 2 or 3 words; example: ‘a Success Story”, Winds Of Change’, ‘Reservoirs Full’.

Jump heads are used whenever a story ‘jumps’ i.e. continues from one page to another, to assist readers to find the continuation as effortlessly as possible.

Box-Items: generally one comes across interesting or important short news items in newspapers and magazines. These are enclosed on all four sides and displayed prominently on the page. Such a news item is called a ‘box’ or box item. It may be a single or double column matter depending on the importance of the news item. The fewer the box items in a page, the greater will be the impact. At times these boxes also have illustrations. As a rule, the captions or headings in the box matter should be crisp, catchy and short.

Judging the Picture as Copy: It falls to an editor to judge the pictures as they come in and to make decisions about how they are to be played. Photographers usually bring in several prints of any picture they take, select what they consider the best and offer them to the editor, who of course, has the final responsibility for the choice. Photos must be judged both as copy and content. A picture it is aid is worth a thousand words. Thus picture editing is a crucial part that determines the overall effect on a page. Picture editing or cropping is an art in itself. This involves judgments as to what part of the print will be reproduced as a cut. It is done by drawing lines at the edge of the print itself in wax pencil where the editor wants the picture framed. One should be careful as to not trim away the background that contributes to the scale and sense of the picture. In cropping, editors also watch for continuation and relevance. The size and shape of the picture cropped are important to the effect they will have on the reader. It is in part dictated by column width. < I>Mortising is the term used for excising part of a picture and replacing the excision with something else, type or art. Sometimes it involves cutting a rectangular piece away to make room for the corner of another cut or as a place to put a caption. Or it may involve removing a rectangular area completely surrounded by the cut. The copy may be even pasted into a dark area as a reverse. Retouching is the process of improving a photograph in the darkroom. Editors are wary of this process, especially if it will be visible to any reader. But subtle retouching may improve a picture’s copy value without necessarily tampering its content. The same is true of keying or highlighting part of the print (improving contrast). All pictures should have captions or cut-lines. They should be crisp and convey the facts accurately for e.g. in a picture, the cut-line states the activity depicted in the picture and the names people in it with their respective positions i.e.‘from left to right’ etc.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

A copy: Also called A matter. Part of a news story, based mainly on advance material, that is later completed by placing a lead on top of it.
Assignment: Duty given to a journalist
Banner: A headline across Page 1, of four columns or more; sometimes called the streamer. Not to be confused with a binder, a headline across the top of an inside page.
Beat: An exclusive story; also a series of places regularly visited by a reporter to gather news.
Body: Part of a story that follows the lead. Also the name of type in which the regular newspaper reading matter is set.
Bold face: (BF) - Type of matter that is heavier and darker than the regular type.
Byline: Signature on a story.
Caps: capital letters; also called upper case
Column: (1) Vertical area in a newspaper page, usually 10 1/2 to 15 pica ems in width. Abbreviated ‘col’. (2) The more or less regular output of a columnist
Copy: Universally known as the name of the material written by the journalist
Copyeditors: Also called copyreaders. They edit the headline and copy. Not to be confused with proofreaders, whose duty is to catch errors in proof.
Cover: To obtain news
Credit line: To credit a picture, cartoon, etc. to the source
Dateline: The place from which the news story is sent. Many newspapers now omit the date from the dateline
Deadline: Closing time for all copy for an edition.
Dummy: A freehand drawing outlining the position of news stories and cuts on a page
Ears: Boxes on either side of the nameplate on Page 1.
Layout: Arrangement of illustrations
Lead: Beginning of a story, which may be a sentence, paragraph, or several paragraphs
Makeup: Assembling the newspaper in the composing room

CHAPTER 5:

Journalistic Writing

Good journalism has always been associated with competent writing and competent writing has always required an easy command of correct language and style. The style of a writer is an involuntary and intimate expression of his personality. The writer should match the mood of the audience. Style must be most unobtrusive.

There are many ground rules for good writing. For example, good writing follows the ABCD principle: Accuracy, Brevity, Conciseness and Directness. A careful writer must remember the distinction between denotation (direct meaning) and connotation (suggested meaning). The use of active voice should be avoided as it leads to brevity. The use of prepositions leads to the danger of circumlocution. The principle of innate selection and control of words most appropriate to the context must be followed.

Today's Style
Newspaper style in recent years has moved increasingly in the direction of uncluttered writing. Simple, direct sentences are desired. Complex and compound sentences may provide the best vehicle for thought under certain circumstances, but also increase the probability of ambiguity. The desire for economy in words has produced tight, swiftly paced writing that has proved to be a boon to newspaper reading. Loose writing is inefficient writing that leads to wasting of words.
Tight writing is characterized by the absence of 'breaks' (commas etc.) in the flow of simple sentences. But tightening that leads to omitting should not be overdone.

Today's journalistic style has the following characteristics:

Compact, usually short sentences, every word selected and placed for maximum effect.
Short, terse paragraphs, each complete in itself and capable of being removed without destroying the sense of the story.
Conciseness, directness and simplicity through elimination of unnecessary words and phrases
Factualness without editorial opinions and dogmatic expressions
'Strong' verbs and nouns preferred over hackneyed words and expressions
Observance of grammatical and word usage rules.

Conciseness

The objective of effective journalistic writing should be to avoid cumbersomeness without becoming repetitive. Relaxing the rule that all of the 5 W's and H (Who, Why, What, Where, When and How) must be included in the first paragraph of the news story leads to uncluttered writing.

Superfluous Words

The articles the, a and an can be eliminated, as

Weak: The Harvard students who heard the lecture...
Better: Harvard students who heard the lecture...

The sentences may be shortened and made more forceful by making the verbs more direct, as:

Weak: The group arrived at a decision.
Better: The group decided.

Weak: They did away with the old building.
Better: They razed the old building.

In their Art of Editing (MacMillan, 1972) Floyd Baskette and Jack Sissors list 48 'pet' circumlocutions that can be reduced to save 100 words. Some of them are listed below:
A good part (much)
A little less than (almost)
Accidentally stumbled (stumbled)
Disclosed for the first time (disclosed)
Jewish Rabbi (Rabbi)
Due to the fact that (because)
Easter Sunday (Easter)
Entered a bid of (bid)
Grand total (total)
In the immediate vicinity (near) e.t.c¦.

It is not necessary to include the state with the names of large cities, or to mention the state with the name of the city in the same state as the place where the newspaper is published.

Weak: She lives in Los Angeles, California
Better: She lives in Los Angeles.

But:

Vague: He lives in Catskill.
Clear: He lives in Catskill, Pennsylvania

Don't waste words in giving dates, as:

Weak: The meeting will be held at 12 o' clock noon.
Better: The meeting will be held at noon.

Superfluous Phrases

Weak: The meeting was held for the purpose of voting for the Chairman.
Better: The meeting was held to vote for the Chairman.

Weak: The colour of the dress was red
Better: The dress was red.

Weak: A baby with brown eyes.
Better: A brown-eyed baby

Superfluous Clauses:

Weak: All women who are interested should come.
Better: All interested women should come.

Weak: John Donne, who is the President of the Engineer's club, will be there.
Better: John Donne, President of the Engineer's club will be there.

Redundancy:

The following is a short list of redundant words commonly used:
1- assemble together
2- carbon copy
3- each and every
4- necessary requirement
5- first and foremost
6- other alternative
7- totally necessary
8- small in size
9- postpone until later
10- rules and regulations etc……

Simplicity:

This is obtained by avoiding 'elegant' words:

1- About is better than with reference to
2- agreement is better than concordance
3- burned is better than destroyed by fire
4- if is better than in the event of
5- meeting is better than rendezvous and so on.

Active and Passive Voice:

The active voice is usually more emphatic than passive voice. However, sometimes the later is preferred to the former:

e.g: Henry Stroke has been appointed chairman of the Republican campaign committee.

In other cases, the active voice is preferable:

e.g.: Weak: The accident was witnessed by ten people
Better: Ten people witnessed the accident.

Figures Of Speech:

The following are examples of age-old figures of speech that should be avoided as they are likely to be misused and mark their user as callow.
1- alike as peas in a pod
2- nipped in the bud
3- hail of bullets
4- watery grave
5- white as a sheet and so on

Journalese:

Newspapers have exhausted the effectiveness of a number of words through indiscriminate repetition. Such words as follows should be avoided:
1- hot seat
2- brutally murdered
3- man hunt
4- crime wave
5- infuriated mob
6- war clouds
7- whirlwind tour
8- quiz
9- grilled by the police
10- news leaked out and so on

Gobbledygook:

Pretentious phrasing or gobbledygook scares the reader away from the story, for e.g.

National Association for Advancement of Gay People's Rights attorneys told the Supreme Court today that overt public resistance is insufficient cause to nullify federal court desegregation orders.

Readability Formulas

Shortly after World War II, the two major press associations and several magazines and newspapers experimented with readability formulas that stressed brevity. The Associated Press reduced its average lead sentence length from 27 to 23 words. The United Press simplified its writing style to be suitable for readers with 11.7 years of education, whereas formerly it was writing for readers who had gone to school 16.7 years.

Leads/Intros

A lead is the first paragraph or introduction of a news story that gives the summary of the news to follow. Different kinds of leads can be used to make the news story readable and interesting. Some of the different kinds of leads are:

1- The 5 W's and one H: As already mentioned earlier in the chapter, the who, why, what, where, when and how of the news need not be mentioned all together. A judicious use of the necessary W's and H makes this kind of lead interesting.

2- The Quotation Lead: In reporting speeches, public statements, etc. it is always better to typify the feature in the reporter's own words rather than by a direct quotation, e.g. :
Weak: "A sharp decline in mortality rates, medical progress and greater economic prosperity have enabled welfare agencies to solve most of their problems except that of the emotionally disturbed child", Horace V. Updike, Council of Social Welfare director said yesterday.
Better: "The emotionally disturbed child is the 'No. 1 problem' facing welfare agencies today, Horace V. Updike, Council Of Welfare director, said yesterday."

3- The Question Lead: Ordinarily a reporter should answer, not ask questions in his news stories. To do otherwise merely delays telling the news, as in the case of a lead beginning, "What causes emotional apathy?" followed by a summary of a new idea advanced by some authority on the subject.

4- The Staccato Lead: When the time element is to be emphasized, this lead is used. It consists of a series of phrases, punctuated either by periods or dashes and usually is a form of descriptive lead. E.g.: Almost thirty years ago-back in 1973-in a different era-in a different life, after years of happiness in her simple home, the light went out of Mrs X's life -she became stone blind. Torturous, long years passed and suddenly her prayers were answered - Mrs X could see.

5- The Explosive Lead: Similar to the Staccato lead but consisting of grammatically complete sentences, the explosive lead is usually used for feature articles.

6- The Dialogue Lead: Minor court stories with strong human interest can be handled effectively by this kind of lead. The lead consists of the dialogue between two people and then followed by a summary or play-by-play account of the event.

7- The Cartridge Lead: When war is declared or ends, when a famous personality dies or on similar important occasions, it is customary to tell the gist of the news in the fewest possible words. E.g. Mayor Charles Canterbury is dead. This style should not be frequently used but reserved for special occasions.

8- The Punch Lead: Similar to the Cartridge lead but not so abrupt or definite is the Punch lead.

9- The Descriptive Lead: A graphic description of a person, place or object to give the tone or feeling necessary for proper understanding and appreciation. The best descriptive leads are written by eyewitnesses.

10- The Parody Lead: Popular songs, titles of best-sellers, newly coined phrases etc. may be used while still fresh, usually in parodied form to brighten an occasional news story lead.

CHAPTER 6:

Changes in the Social and Economic Scenario

In today's modern democratic society, it is a common belief that the freedom enjoyed by the media is an essential prerequisite. Yet, at the same time, it is also believed that the media are turning politics into a trivial entertainment for couch potatoes. Yet the mass media was created for citizens of a democracy to decide the important issues of the day amongst themselves through public debate, including in print. In the late-eighteenth centuries, this participative form of media freedom was put into practice. The exercise of the fundamental right of the freedom of expression was made possible by the widespread ownership of cheap wooden printing presses.

Despite its libertarian claims, media freedom was the monopoly in the hands of a few rich men, who could produce only a limited number of expensive copies of publication. However, the industrialization of printing allowed printed material to become cheap enough for almost everyone to purchase. When the new electronic media were introduced, information production spiraled and was made available free to their audiences. But now the news content was determined by the management hierarchical business institutions or the State.

The role of the media now came under the magnifying glass, with different functions being attributed to it by different people. For some, the interests of the audience were best served by the media being objective and truthful in its reporting. For others, the media had to serve the future interests of the people by disseminating revolutionary ideas. But there was one common thing - the complete passivity of the audience. Although almost everyone could receive the output of the media, most people weren't able to use the media to express their own views.

Over the past few years, the introduction of new information technologies has intensified the centralization of the media. The spread of new technologies has also encouraged the growth of community media such as radio stations, cable television channels and e-mail, having mass distribution potentiality. For example, in cyberspace, a single global network or a web is being spun out of a network of contributors and bulletin boards. The community media are used by all sections of society as a means of free expression.

Karl Deutsch, in his "Social Mobilization and Political Participation", developed the concept of social mobilization, the process whereby people become uprooted from their traditions and become available for new patterns of communication and behavior. According to him, the process of modernization should be accompanied by an increase of exposure to mass media. Shaun Moores in his 'Media and Everyday Life in Modern Society' talks about the position that television, radio or other electronic media like telephones and computers have come to occupy in people's day-to-day lives and social relationships. He discusses how these communication and information technologies have helped construct new arrangements of time, space and place in a culture with globalizing tendencies, and the types of identity, experience and interaction the electronic media make available to their different audiences or users. Combining theory with empirical research, he discusses topics such as the meanings of satellite dishes, the formation of imagined communities and the presentation of self in virtual realities.

Communication and Development: Socio-Economic Impacts of Media on the Traditional Structures of Developing Countries

Scholars have made interesting efforts to fashion meaningful theories about the role of mass mediated communication in the national development process. Most studies indicate relationships among factors like economics, religion, press freedom etc. Daniel Learner's study entitled 'The Passing Of Traditional Society' noted high correlation among four factors: urbanization, literacy, media participation and political participation. Deutsch pointed out a correlation between mass communication of a country and its national spirit and action.

One school of thought attributed to the Western media an essential role in overcoming undemocratic and unjust social structures, while another school looked upon it as the essential agent of destruction of indigenous cultures and identities.

Similar discussions about the socio-economic impacts of information technologies (ITs) on society, independent of the discussion concerning the developing countries, have led to the argument on one hand that advancing technicalization of our societies puts different individuals on the same platform and blends them together; while on the other hand the opponents of this thought argue that ITs break up societies into single groups, which brings about disintegration and waning of solidarity.

John T. McNelly of the University of Wisconsin has written of the lack of well-developed theories of the role of mass communication in national development., but postulates at least 4 general positions or points in the same context:

1- The Null Position: This holds that mass communication has little or nothing to do with national development. Those taking this position place emphasis on literacy and education and not on the mass media

2- Enthusiastic Position: This is usually a position held by UNESCO and other development-oriented agencies and individuals. Here the mass media has a decisive role not only in development but also establishing peace and stability.

3- Cautious Position: The 2-step flow theory (see Chapter 2 - Theories of Communication) proposed by Katz and Lazarsfeld relates to this position. This position supports that mass communication is not omnipotent and a number of social and cultural factors (such as opinions of opinion leaders) serve to mediate or even nullify the impact of the mass media.

4- Pragmatic Position: Persons accepting this position realize that there are no adequate theories to predict the impact of information flow for all types of messages in different societies, in all situations. McNelly advocates, adopting the pragmatic position where the researcher seeks empirical evidence on the effects of mass communication in a culture or society.

Digital Information Revolution

While the mass media (the press, radio, TV) facilitate one-to-many communication processes and the interpersonal media (telex, telephone) enable one-to-one communication processes, the Internet ( an interactive network) is a many-to-many process. The question therefore is whether the experiences gained from mass and telecommunications media can be applied to interactive networks too.

Hiltz & Turoff (1993) have coined the term "superconnectivity" to mean

"1. The phenomenon of almost perfect transmission of communication and information throughout the human habitations of the universe, via computers. 2. The interconnections of all social and economic institutions as a result of communication via computer networks."

Guglielmo Marconi's invention of wireless telegraphy led to the emergence of radio broadcasts almost 100 years ago. Since that time, there have been major advances in broadcasting including; radio, television, cable networks, the Internet, and more recent innovations.

Two new "medias" that have put broadcasting onto the 'next generation' course are Interactive Television and Personalized Broadcasting. Microsoft acquired WebTV Networks, Inc. in 1997, a company that serves thousands today with their technology that integrates the television and the Internet. It consists of a set-top box and a subscription service. The service allows consumers to get access to the World Wide Web, e-mail, and other interactive experiences not normally available through the traditional cable or satellite services. Another service is the 'UltimateTV', that consists of a set-top box and modified computer keyboard along with the satellite TV service. The television then becomes a VCR, an ISP, an e-mail program, and a TV all in one service; the convergence of entertainment and information in an interactive environment.

The wireless/mobile broadcasting medium is also experiencing explosive growth. This type of broadcasting works on the idea that a consumer can access news and information through any wireless device such as a cell phone and receive it in audio instead of text. Several General Audio Download, Mobile Audio Communications and Personalized Broadcast (PB) companies have entered the market to whet the public's appetite for information

This is just the tip of the iceberg. From the initial invention of the radio to the new media technology of today, it is clear that consumer demand for personalization is driving broadcasting and media. Consumers want more choices and more control over the information they receive.

The consumers of the new media can now go interactive with their TV sets. Public television is uniquely positioned to take full advantage of new digital technology to serve the needs of its viewers of all ages and ethnic backgrounds. For the past several years, public television has been an industry leader in bringing digital TV's (DTV) many new possibilities to reality. The digital transition signifies the biggest change in the TV medium since the advent of television itself. DTV technology provides a host of new opportunities for public television to provide interactive education and training programs never before possible with today's analog broadcasting standard.

The Internet is viewed as the 'information utopia', the fulfillment of an ancient dream of a free information flow uninfluenced by government. But the principle of freedom must be complemented by social responsibility. Communication connects people with one another, breaks down prejudices, increases people's knowledge about one another, and supports peaceful coexistence. In all of these cases, the aim is to overcome or reduce superfluous borders. Physical access, however, is not the only issue. Another concerns the ability to use and understand the communication technology. For difficulties to be overcome, including those of time and space, accelerated development of traffic and communication infrastructures worldwide is recommended.

One also has to take into account the dynamical element of identity change inherent in the communication between two cultures. Within the intercultural communication process, the communicating entities are not in the same state during and after the communication as they were before it. If communication weakens, erodes and blurs the participants, then it tends not towards peace, but towards aggression.

>But a case of a 'reduced cues' social environment as facilitated by the computer mediated communication (CMC) has been described by Kiesler, Siegel, & McGuire as having a "democratizing" effect on organizational communication. Visual cues such as complexion and dress, as well as audio cues of accent and inflection are nonexistent in text-only discourse leading to the increase of empathy and alliance.

Technology and Culture

The diffusion of technologies is always accompanied by diverse cultural impacts. Many French sociologists and intellectuals have pointed out the cultural impacts of technologies. Francois Mitterand in the 1982 G7-Summit on Technology, Employment and Growth at Versailles, highlighted this factor. In the 1995 G7-Summit on the Global Information Society, France again suggested that the cultural aspects of the new information technologies be given special attention. Out of the same tradition, the French President, Jacques Chirac, declared the Internet top priority matter in the beginning of 1996.

In his analysis on the implications of the information superhighway on Asia, Jeffrey Goh from the Singaporean National Computer Board summed up that cultural communication tends not towards peace, but towards aggression: "The implications of Internet on heritage and culture are two-fold. On the one hand, it is yet another channel by which Western culture enters the country. On the other hand, given the low cost structure of operating an internet service, it is also a way by which local culture and points of view can be shared. In this new medium developing countries do not have to take the back-seat".

Journalism and Mass Communication

© Kalyani Suresh

CHAPTER 7:

BROADCAST JOURNALISM

The world a few years ago was a testing laboratory for innovative television technology that has now become a versatile tool for the leapfrogging communication scenario. Changes such as Studio film, videotape colour, quicker editing, miniaturization of bulky electronic gears, orbiting communications satellite providing visual and sound links and the continuous refinement of technology to name a few, have revolutionized the world of broadcast journalism.

Experimental television broadcasting started in the 1920s in the USA in a small way using a mechanical scanning disc which could only scan a picture slowly. All this changed with the invention of the iconoskinescope (picture tube), the electronic camera and television home receivers. By the 1930s NBC and BBC had set up their TV stations in New York and London respectively. The World war hampered any further development in television broadcasting.

The 1960s was the Age of Satellite Communications. Early Bird, the first communication satellite was launched and two big international satellite systems, Intelsat and Intersputnik began operating leading to phenomenal progress. In the 1970s, more sophisticated transmission techniques using optical fibre cables and computer technology were introduced. A computer controlled network to carry two-way video information to and from households was designed in Japan. Further developments included the audio-visual cassette, videotape recorder, closed circuit TV, cable and pay television and Direct Broadcasting Systems.

Advantages of Television Media

Television as distinguished from the press has a natural attribute: the immense personal and graphic impact on its viewers, which is in a sense more "communicative", interactive and interpersonal than the printed word. Television "transports" the audience to the scene of the event and leads them to experience emotion and involvement with the event.

The main difference between press and television is the element of time. The newsperson is dependent on limited time instead of stretchable space on a newspaper, and he/she also has to take into account the audience's attention span. He/she has to select news items that will interest people and broadcast it to them within the timeframe allowed.

On-the-scene Reporting

Recent trends have shown an increased use of first-hand, on-the-spot broadcasting/reporting of a story directly from the scene of news. Efficient technology has increased the speed of such coverage. A highly organized team geared to the day-to-day demands of news broadcasting is very much an essential part today due to increased competitiveness and the irrefutable need for keeping up the quality of news delivery to a very media savvy audience.
Judgments and critical evaluations of the news items to be broadcast begin with the top news executives of the organization. They have a group of editors or producers of the program reporting to them, who in turn command a host of reporters, writers, cameramen, film editors and technicians. Hours before the program is to be aired, the editor assigns work to his subordinates, anticipates future developments and reserves sufficient flexibility to cope with news occurring during and before airing of the program.

Network correspondents in particular areas or reporters affiliated to local stations prepare newsworthy items and mount them for transmission and recording ahead of program time or live transmission. Stories from far away areas are filmed and dispatched by air transportation to points within reach for feeding into the show.

After all the news has been gathered and the late-breaking additions are made, the news must be edited to fit the air time. Stories to be read out by newscasters must be combined with silent and sound film, video and audio tapes, still photographs, amps and other audio-visual "accessories". The final script with the audio-visual elements is called the "master" which should be crisp, effective and professional.

The shape of any news show is determined not only by the choice of what is news, but also by the emphasis given to different stories and the way it is presented. The way a story is written creates an impact on the listener.

Many have raised the question as to the role of television other than its entertainment function: is it not to dissent, persuade, to chronicle events of the day as judgments? A pertinent question here is whether the broadcasting people have the wisdom to tell the nation what to do about matters of vital importance. If one point of view is emphasised, is there not a responsibility to present the other side? Many well-known media persons have commented on this Former NBC President Kitner says, "It is not our job to take sides. We should present the story objectively and let the public decide for themselves." This brings in the need for objectivity. But again one person's objectivity may be another person's story with a slant and vice-versa. This is one area which is open to debate.

Investigative Reporting

William Wood in his book "Electronic Journalism" says that the forms of journalism calculated to stir things up are not complete without investigative reporting, sometimes called enterprise reporting, which is digging for unknown facts that result in an expose.

Talk Programs and Depth Interviews

Special documentaries produced over long periods are called "talk" programs and are more in depth than normal news stories. Depth interviews, panels of experts, debates between political candidates are other ways in which television journalism garners audience pulling power. Talk programs are cheaper and easier to produce than documentaries.

CHAPTER 8:

ISSUES IN JOURNALISM AND MASS COMMUNICATION:

ETHICS AND LAWS

The first freedom that goes whenever a dictatorship of any kind assumes power is the freedom of the press. The press is a gigantic force that governs the activities and opinions of the world. Thus it has a great responsibility of uplifting and enlightening humanity. The press must have a respect for truth and should adhere to a code of ethics to preserve the bond of mutual trust and respect between journalists and the people.

Freedom of press is a means to an end, not an end in itself. It is the right to know and not a special privilege of a few people in power. The media all over the world are governed by certain laws and code of ethics. A few terms that one comes across while discussing media/press laws and ethics are given below:

1)      DEFAMATION

Defamation defined by the Faulks Committee (1975) “shall consist of the publication to a third party of a matter which, in all circumstances would be likely to affect a person adversely in the estimation of reasonable people generally.” The defective traditional press definition, only used as a rule of the thumb, that defamatory matter was copy which brought a person into ‘hatred, ridicule or contempt’.

Eg: Youssoupoff vs MGM Pictures Limited (1934): In a film made by the defendants there was a suggestion that the plaintiff, a Russian princess had either been raped or seduced by Rasputin. The princess was living in exile in Paris when the film appeared and she sued successfully because the defendants could not prove either of the suggestions they had made. They argued however that the people seeing the film would not hate, ridicule or feel contempt for the princess. Their argument was rejected because she could not show that certain friends avoided her more out of pity to save her embarrassment if the allegations were true and that she was being shunned without moral discredit on her part.

Defamation is of two kinds: Libel and Slander. Defamation is a tort (civil wrong) while slander or libel are allegations.

Ø  LIBEL

According to the American and English Encyclopedia of Law, a libel is a malicious defamation expressed either by writing or printing, or by signs, pictures, effigies or the like; tending to blacken the memory of one who is dead or impeach the honesty, integrity, virtue or reputation, or to publish the natural or alleged defects of one who is alive and thereby expose him to public hatred, contempt, ridicule; or to cause him to be shunned or avoided, or to injure him in his office, business or occupation.
Libel may be committed by mere insinuation. Also, allegory and irony may be libelous. The following list of words from the Scripps-Howard Synopsis of the Law of Libel and the Right to Privacy by Bruce W. Stanford are ‘red flag’ words that may lead to libelous suits if not handled carefully in news stories:

a)- Jekyll-Hyde personality
b)- Ku Klux Klan
c)- Peeping Tom
d)- Illegitimate
e)- Plagiarist
f)- Illicit relations
g)- Humbug
h)- Ex-convict
i)- Bribery
j)- Hypocrite
k)- Drug addict
l)- Defaulter
m)- Double-crosser
n)- Altered records……etc.

Damages resulting from libel suits may be of three kinds:
a)- General(when injury is recognized as the natural consequence of such publication and proof of injury to reputation is given)
b)- Special (when the plaintiff can prove particular loss)
c)- Punitive/Exemplary (inflicted as punishment for proved malice by the offending publication)

Defenses against libel are of five kinds:
a)- Truth of the statement/Justification

If the statement is true, there is no defamation.e.g. if someone is a convicted rapist, you cannot defame that person by telling people that fact
b)- Privilege

A common defense against defamations is privilege, or immunity.

There are many types of privilege,but the most common are absolute privilege (immunity from charge of defamation, even if the statement is malicious. Mostly claimed by legislators) and qualified privilege (this, protects the press from defamation charges for written or spoken statements, unless they can be proved to be malicious)
c)-opinion

If it can be shown that the statement was opinion, rather than a pronouncement of a fact,the statement may not be determined to be defamatory.

Opinion as defense depends on the context, including the stature and presumed knowledge of the person making the statement

Fair comment without malice (protects expressions of opinions on public interest matters)
d)- Absence of malice
e)- Prompt publication of retraction by newspaper in which the "offending news" appeared

Ø  SLANDER

Slander is a form of action where defamatory meaning comes from spoken words or gestures.

There are some important distinctions between slander and libel:
1. Libel, if it could cause a breach of peace is both a crime and a tort
2. The injured party need not show any actual financial loss in libel. The court presumes damages. Slander however requires proof of monetary loss (called special damages), except in four cases:
a)- a criminal offence punishable with imprisonment
b)- a contagious disease which might prevent others form associating with the plaintiff (applicant)
c)- adultery relating to a woman or girl
d)- words which belittle a man in relation to his office, business or profession.

2)      CONFIDENTIALITY
Journalists are bound by a code of ethics that does not allow them to reveal their sources of news. But nowadays journalistic defendants in libel actions are handicapped by the growing inclination of judges to grant plaintiff requests that they be compelled to reveal their sources of information. Thus journalists have to arm themselves with rules that allow them to thoughtfully deal with confidential sources. It is wrong to argue that stories such as Watergate would have remained buried if it had not been for some ‘deep throat’ source.

3)      COPYRIGHT
News cannot be copyrighted, but the actual wording of an account of the event can. A newspaper that wishes to rewrite or quote a copyrighted article appearing in another publication either buys the copyrighting privileges or requests permission to quote. Credit must be given to the original source. If the copyright is purchased, then the credit line appears at the top of the article. Articles in magazines and books are often copyrighted but newspapers are careful in quoting such material in order to steer clear of violating copyright privileges.

Duration of Copyright
The time period till which the copyright rules are valid depends on whether the work is published during or after the lifetime of the author, or whether the work is a photograph. For works published during the author’s lifetime, copyright runs for the life of the author plus 50 years from the end of the calendar year in which he/she died. Works published after the death of the author, copyright runs for 50 years from the end of the calendar year in which the work is published. For photographs, copyright runs for 50 years from the end of the calendar year in which the photograph was first published.

Infringement
If any substantial part of the copyright work is reproduced without the permission of the copyright owner, infringement occurs.

Remedies for infringement
Remedies include:
1. an injunction, i.e. a court order that prevents the infringer from repeating the breach of copyright. Repeating the infringement, results in contempt of court.
2. Damages, wherein the copyright owner seeks to recover the money he/she has lost by the infringement.
3. an account of profits, wherein the true owner claims an amount of profit made by the infringer, not the value of the infringing material.
4. criminal prosecution

4)      REPORTORIAL ETHICS
A student of journalism is encouraged to be as open-minded and objective as possible. This is to prepare him/her to be free of bias and prejudices, conscious or unconscious. The reporter should be aware of the importance of stereotypes, taboos, superstitions and other factors influencing values and opinions. A reporter's power is something that has the ability to draft a certain mindset in people. Thus integrity, accuracy and objectivity, and fair play are needed in high doses.

Responsibility: To serve general welfare and the public’s right to know is the prime mission of the mass media. Journalists who use the media and their professional status for their own selfish needs violate a high trust.

Freebies and Payolas: Reporters covering large meetings and events have access to a whole lot of material advantages and necessities such as gifts, favours, free travel, special treatment and privileges. Newspapers have different opinions about the limit to which these ‘freebies’ can be accepted by the reporter without letting them bias his/her reporting in favour of the party offering these freebies.

The Society of Professional Journalists, Sigma Delta Chi, has a code of ethics as follows:
"The Society of Professional Journalists, Sigma Delta Chi, believes the duty of journalists is to serve the truth.
We believe the agencies of mass communication are carriers of public discussion and information, acting on their Constitutional mandate and freedom to learn and report the facts.
We believe in public enlightenment as the forerunner of justice, and in our constitutional role to seek the truth as a part of the public’s right to know the truth.
We believe those responsibilities carry obligations that require journalists to perform with intelligence, objectivity, accuracy and fairness."

CHAPTER 9:

Corporate communication

ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS (PR)

Corporations, like all other structures in human society, are built on ideas. Their security, growth and success depend on how sensitive the executive actions are towards changes in the social, economic and political climate. Corporate communications, which includes advertising and PR, is thus an important management tool in spurring the corporations towards a turbulence-free, profitable future.

We have today moved from the we generation to the me generation. The great majority of business and industrial enterprises in the private sector have not considered, as part of their aims, any function other than increasing their profits. There has been an abdication of social responsibility by the business community, barring a few exceptions. Thus it follows that to ensure its contribution to society as a corporate citizen, to cope with competition, to harmonize the company’s economic goals and the nation’s aspirations; there is a need for a top-level management function, facilitated by corporate communications.

ADVERTISING
Advertising today is a world-wide phenomenon. It is derived from the Latin word advertere meaning to turn the attention. It is defined as a paid, non-personal communication used with persuasive intent by identified sources through various media. It is a form of paid communication, different from other forms of publicity such as press releases or public relations, which are often covered by the media free of charge.Non-personal, distinguishes advertising from other forms of personal/door-to-door salesmanship. The advertiser is identified as one who has a persuasive intent in trying to alter the behaviour and attitudes of people towards a product, service or idea in a way that would be beneficial to himself/herself. Advertisements are associated with the mass media including newspapers, television, radio, magazines, cinema; and also with other forms such as billboards, posters, direct mail etc.

People involved in the advertising business are:
1. Advertisers
2. Advertising agencies (made up of copywriters, art directors, television and radio producers, media buyers, specialists in printing etc., researchers, planners, PR experts)
3. Support organizations (specialists in cinematography; film editing; music scoring; market, product and consumer research firms etc)
4. Media (depending on the target audience’s media habits, media effectiveness and reach and relative cost) and
5. Consumers

Advertising can be carried out for many purposes such as building up a company’s name (institutional advertising) and a particular brand (brand advertisement). Advertising reduces distribution cost by simplifying personal selling, encourages competition and fosters product quality through clear brand identification, adds value to the product, is a guide for consumers and builds up the morale of the company’s sales force.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH:
The colourful history of advertising can be divided into six periods:
1. The ancient times: During the time when Babylon was ruled by Hamurabi, 2000 years before Christ, merchants used hired criers or barkers to impress upon the quality of their products and persuade people to buy. Other forms of communications were wall signs, directing the people towards the location of sale.
2. 5th to 8th Centuries: Referred to as the Dark Ages, this period saw a setback in advertising with the fall of the Roman Empire. Reading and writing were the prerogative of a privileged few. Commerce and trade routes were few. Whatever advertising was done was through hand executed signals or ringing of bells to attract the attention of consumers.
3. 9th to 15th Centuries: This period saw advertising flourish. Town criers in Paris developed new gimmicks such as free samples. Gutenberg’s Movable Type Press revolutionized printing. This led to new mediums of advertising such as printed posters, handbills, signs, pamphlets, books and newspapers.
4. 16th and 17th Centuries: Newspapers in the form of newsletters and news books were introduced as a medium for advertising. Special advertising periodicals were introduced which undertook advertising on a regular basis.
5. 18th and 19th Centuries: Untruthful advertising flourished. People lost faith in advertisements and were cautious. This period saw the birth of window and counter displays, exhibitions and trade fairs and sandwich men (men hired to promote the product on the streets, sandwiched between posters both in front and back)

Illustration 1: Sandwich men

(Permission for use pending)

6. 20th Century till present day: This century saw the advent of radio and television commercials in America. While radio commercials (dialogue commercials, dramatized commercials, musical commercials etc.) with their voice ads had an edge over print ads, television commercials (sponsored programmes and announcements) with colourful visual effects could beat the radio ads. Outdoor advertising media such as traveling displays, neon signs, posters, sky writing etc also gained foothold. New age advertising now includes internet scroll ads.

Illustration 2: Sample Copy, Town Talk:Emergence of Advertising in America -

Duke University Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library
(scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/.../B02/ B0268/B0268-01-72dpi.jpeg)

CONSTRUCTING AN AD
The formulation of the advertising message involves designing the ad copy and structuring the layout so that the product’s USP (unique selling proposition) may be effectively presented to the target audience.
The first creative process is visualization (seeing in the mind’s eye). After the idea to be presented is created, the copy is thought, illustrations sketched and copy elements laid out. The final form is in the shape of some sketch work called a doodle that contains the tentative headline, theme and illustration. It is to be noted that visualization is different from layout. The former is the work of copywriters and artists concerned with the creation of the idea, whereas the later involves arranging headlines, illustrations, text matter, slogan, trademark and brand name- to deliver the idea effectively. Visualization tells what and layout tells where.

According to advertising executive Alex Osborne, the founder of the Creative Education Foundation in America, who, in 1939, led a team that coined the word brainstorming visualization involves 4 steps:
1. Orientation: which lets the visualizer address the advertising problem and get acquainted with the company’s product, history, philosophy, policies etc.
2. Preparation: implies gathering a reservoir of information related to the advertising problem, to prepare the mind to create ideas.
3. Analysis: a refinement process wherein the collected information is thoroughly examined and those ideas which are irrelevant to the problem are done away with.
4. Ideation: process of piling up various alternatives as to work towards a solution to the problem.
5. Incubation: Sleeping on the idea or the hatching of ideas. Some term this the a-ha stage, as something unique is generated and the solution is born.
6. Synthesis: where various ideas relating to headlines, sub-headlines, text matter, illustration, slogan, trade mark and logo type are synthesized as a single meaningful whole.
7. Verification: is the evaluation process, where the idea is tested by a panel of experts to judge its real worth and necessary changes for improvement can be implemented.

The Ad Copy
Copy is the soul of an ad. It refers to all the written and spoken matter in an ad expressed in words, sentences and figures. A good copy is like a well thought out plan for a building. A good copy is clear, brief, apt, personal and honest.
The copywriter should take into consideration the following questions:
1. what am I advertising?
2. to whom am I advertising?
3. how can I convey the best message to the target audience?
4. where and how is the product sold?
5. when is the product purchased and used?
6. what legal implications are involved?

TYPES OF AD COPY
Prof. H.K Nixon, in his Principles of Advertising states that an effective ad copy is one that arrests, informs, impresses and impels the reader. There are innumerable types of copy, such as reason why copy(wherein the ad offers reasons as to why the consumer should purchase the product or service and promotes the product by magnifying its superiority), institutional copy(where the name of the business house or the advertiser and not the product or service is sold, and the philosophy, ideology and policies of the organization or seller are highlighted to increase goodwill), human interest copy(which appeals to emotions- humour, fear, predicament etc- rather than the intellect), educational/teaser copy(in case of a product/service introduction) etc.

STRUCTURE AND LAYOUT
A typical ad contains the following:
1. Copy headline: This stands out by the size or style of type in which it is set, the prominence of its location or the white space surrounding it. It tells the gist of the copy (selling message) in a few words. It attracts the readers attention by being provocative, informative, selective etc.
2. Copy sub headline: These expand on the main headline to carry the readers interest further into the copy.
3. Slogans: This is a brief, unchanging word or phrase used by the advertiser regularly to impress upon the consumer, the basic idea about the product or service. It increases the recall value of the ad and sometimes even replaces the headline.
4. Body Copy: This is the text that amplifies the ideas in the headline.
5. Copy illustration: maybe a drawing, photograph, painting or diagram used to garner attention and bring about a behaviour change in the consumer. This is also called art work. The advent of computer graphics has enabled this activity to be more creative.
6. Identification marks: includes trade name, trademark, logo etc.

The layout of an ad may be either crude or carefully developed. Depending on the extent of refinement, they are classified into thumbnails, roughs and comprehensives. A good layout usually adheres to the principles of balance, rhythm, emphasis, proportion, unity and simplicity.

EFFECTS OF ADVERTISING
Advertising has a direct as well as indirect effect on the socio-economic scenario of a country. It touches and influences all irrespective of age, sex, class, creed, colour, religion, political ideology etc. Advertising has often been accused of being unnecessary, wasteful, untruthful and misleading and also that it often creates monopolies and increases the price of products.
Advertising has effects on production costs, distribution costs and consumer prices. The cost of advertising is passed on to the consumer, but proper use can directly affect unit sales and thus bring down the cost of production, distribution and the product itself. Advertising is a marketing tool that assists producers in informing maximum number of people cheaply and quickly about his/her product.

Advertising often suffers from wrong targeting (giving the advertising message to a market segment which is not interested in the product), wrong media selections, ill-timed advertising, lack of policy co-ordination and sub-standard quality of communication.

Advertising is as much a social phenomenon as it is an economic one. It creates utility value. In the modern marketing system, consumer is the king. Today’s consumer is well-informed and choosy and not the traditional kind of purchaser who is easily persuaded to buy what is not of utility value to him. The consumer makes sure he/she gets his/her moneys worth. Advertising thus is the best guide for wise decision-making.

Ironically, just as the consumer is king, he is also the slave of the market. What is of use to one is not necessarily so for the other. Consumer welfare and consumer protection laws (self-regulation and government regulation) have thus come into existence to shield the consumer who is often not given enough attention.

Advertising also influences the standard of living of the society as it indirectly affects the consumers tendency to consume by increasing their desire to work hard, earn more and meet their objectives.

Ethics in advertising is a major topic of discussion in any talk about advertising. What is the extent to which an advertiser should be allowed to go to promote his/her product can advertising be at the cost of ignoring the cultural, ethnic, social and aesthetic limits that a society sets for itself? Should untruthful and misleading information about a particular product or service be allowed just because it is the manufacturers prerogative to sell his/her product the best way he/she can? These questions have been addressed time and again when bad ads ruffle a few feathers. Undue sexism, suggestive words, unwarranted use of women models to promote products totally unconnected with women, ignoring social taboos, promoting products whose excessive use is injurious to one’s health (cigarettes, alcohol) etc are elements that modern ads suffer from today. Thus a right mix of self regulation and government regulation is the need of the day.

PUBLIC RELATIONS (PR)
The first use of the phrase public relations was by President Thomas Jefferson in 1807. While drafting his Seventh Address to the Congress, he replaced the words state of thought with public relations.Efforts to communicate and influence peoples behaviour in the process can be traced back to early civilizations. Public Relations were in use much earlier by people who did not know they were practicing it. Greek and Roman theorists studied the importance of public will. The Romans gave birth to the expression Vox Populi, Vox Dei i.e. the voice of the people is the voice of God. Machiavelli held the belief that people must either be caressed or annihilated.                   Archaeologists found a farm bulletin in Iraq dating back to the 1800S informing farmers how to sow and irrigate and harvest their crops.

The very popular Queen Elizabeth I of England controlled the country for 45 years and elevated it to a first rate power. Hers was a first class example of a successful PR campaign.

PR began in America in the 16th century when Sir Walter Raleigh persuaded people from various parts of America to settle in rural Virginia. The first organized attempt at PR was for winning public opinion for the American Revolution. In 1900, the first PR consultancy known as Publicity Bureau was formed in Boston. In 1915, Ivy Lee made his declaration on the truthful recording of facts on behalf of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company for handling rail-road accidents. With a tremendous growth of publicity, propaganda and PR in the following period, businesses realized the need for an effective PR system to explain their contributions to the economy. The Second World War saw the armed forces taking interest in PR.

PR Defined
The word public refers to any group of people who share a common interest. Some publics such as employees of an organization are called internal public  and those who buy the product or the services offered by the company are the external public. PUBLIC Relations is the mutual understanding born out of the sharing of common interests.Thus the combination of public and relations leads to the management function called Public Relations

Peter Biddlecombe in his International Public Relations Encyclopedia published by Grant Helm gives definitions coined by many experts in the field. One such is :

Frank Jefkins ,in his book Public Relations for Marketing Management (Studies in Marketing Management) PR means what it says - relations with the public. It is practically a self-defining term. It aims to create and maintain confidence. It is a system of communication to create goodwill. It produces that intangible quality or asset - goodwill, and earns credit for achievements.

K.R.Balan in his Applied Public Relations and Communication defines PR as a deliberate, planned, and sustained effort to establish and maintain mutual understanding between an organization and its publics

PR brings about an opinion change. The governors of this opinion change are culture, family, religion, school, economic and social class and race to name a few. People are also influenced by opinion leaders, other members of the group, or from persons outside the group.

Counsellor Earl Newsom has stated the principle of public opinion as:

1. Identification principle: People will ignore an idea, opinion or point of view unless they see clearly that it affects their personal fears or desires, hopes or aspirations - your message must be stated in terms of the interest of your audience.
2. Action principle: People do not buy ideas separated from action. Unless a means of action is provided, people tend to shrug off appeals to do things
3. Principle of Familiarity and Trust: People buy ideas only from those they trust, are influenced by, or adopt only those opinions put forward by individuals, corporations or institutions in whom they have confidence.
4. Clarity principle: The situation must be clear to the people, not confusing. To communicate, one must employ words, symbols, or stereotypes that the receiver understands and comprehends.

PR is also human relations. It requires the skills of empathy, persuasion, dialogue and personal contact. A good Public Relations exercise guarantees the following:
1. Favourable image
2. Product and service promotion
3. Goodwill of employees/stockholders/suppliers/government/industry/customers.
4. Solution to labour problems
5. Crossing hurdles of misconceptions and prejudices
6. Garnering the best personnel
7. Educating the public; about the product/service
8. Formulation of policies and guidelines
9. Directing course of change
10. Meeting crisis situations

An example of good and bad public relations may be best described through actual events that happened to two United States Presidents, William Taft and Bill Clinton.

When the word got out of the Clinton-Lewinski affair, and a federal investigation was launched, Clinton publicly denied ever having any relationship with her. When the evidence showed the contrary, he reluctantly admitted his error, but the damage had been done. His popularity nation sunk to the lowest level of any U.S. President in history. It still remains low. On the other hand President William Howard Taft, a strong businessman and president, was publicly accused of fathering a child out of wedlock. In his era, 1909-1915, such an act was one of the most immoral in polite society. Taft publicly admitted that he had a �love child�. He humbly asked Americans for their forgiveness. who readily forgave him and lauded his honesty.

PR is a hard-nosed operation. A PR person is not a magician who can whitewashes a dirty image in minutes. It is unfair to expect the world out of him/her. A PR person can be termed a catalyst that brings about a positive change suing various tools available to him/her. Some of these artistic tools are: News releases and backgrounders (written art); radio and TV talk shows and news (dramatic arts); presentations (visual and speaking arts); media and analyst tours (the same); Internet news (graphic art); and media relations (all the arts, including entertainment and relationship building). This process cannot be achieved through stunts, but has to be built on hard facts to win confidence. What a management defines, PR person refines. It has been said that a true PR professional raises his hat to the past but takes his coat off to the future.

Illustration 3: The PR Process: www.workinpr.com/images/industry/ whitepaper_persuasion.gif
Source: www.workinpr.com/.../research/ pra_whitepaper_persuasion.asp
(Permission for use pending)

SOME SAMPLE ADS

Sample 1: Humorous Copy

California Linear Devices Launches New Ad Campaign
New campaign features humorous depiction of solutions to linear motion problems
Carlsbad, Calif. -- Naturally, the goal of every ad campaign should be to get the company or product noticed. And our new ad campaign has not only done that, it's created attention by making the subject of linear motion fun.

Source : www.calinear.com/newads.html
(Permission for use pending)

Sample 2

This is basically a good ad. The headline boldly stands out, and promises a benefit (a Deal) although to some people the Deal sounded more like the tone of an auto dealer, not a piano store. The price is prominently shown. The ad is well designed, balanced. The illustration shows a choice of two models. The copy is authoritative and honest. Here�s the copy: We�ve surveyed the market and we know of no other piano that can compare with the value and quality of these outstanding instruments at anywhere near the price. Thanks to Schmitt�s volume truckload purchasing, you can now have an affordable piano that combines beauty and elegance along with outstanding performance. Your choice of two striking decorator styles-Queen Anne Cherry or Traditional Oak-both the same price.
The price, $2588 largely visible, and is qualified with a caption in fine print at the right, under the bench: Only $68 per month.
The framed block of copy toward the bottom carries a run-on list of FEATURES THAT ASSURE PERFORMANCE & LONG LIFE. There are about a dozen features, such as a solid spruce soundboard, laminated hard maple bridges and a beautifully finished including matching bench.

Source: Lynne Meena�s Ad Clinic - www.retailreporting.com/ pubs/LMStory.html
(Permission for use pending)

Sample 3: Institutional Advertising

( The above campaign was created & inserted by EGD&P in The Washington Business Journal for Sigal Construction, Washington, D.C., 1991 through '92 )
Source : www.michaelenfield.com/ sigal.gif

Sample 4: Social Service Advertising

Source: www.avert.org/ graphics/worldaidsday.jpg

CHAPTER 10:

Communication in the e-world - Issues

The famous remark of Marshall McLuhan, the linguist "The Media is the Message" could be called the foundation for any study on mass communication. But today, the media is no longer the message i.e. content. Mass communication media is becoming diverse, and so is the content. People’s access to the media has increased manifold and so has the ability to create a new content with each access.

"Mass communication" has started to shift towards "one-to-one communication," which means that communication is programmed to meet the demands of the individual. The Internet is one such essential tool for personalized mass communication. This chapter focuses on the various phases of the ongoing "paradigm shift," induced by the changes in the technological society.

EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES: THEIR HISTORY
The Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW)

Some of the best ideas are born in the worst of times it is said. And so it was that the seeds of the Internet were sown in the ashes of World War II. After perpetuating the nuclear holocaust in Japan in 1945, the US military research concentrated on ways and means to survive a similar holocaust on themselves. In the 1960s, the problem of communicating with each other in the aftermath of a nuclear attack was taken up by America’s foremost military think-tank - the Rand Corporation’s Paul Baran. Years of agonizing research led to the creation of the first Net called the ARPANET (ARPA stood for Advanced Research Projects Agency) - connecting 4 American research organizations: Stanford Research Institute, the University of Utah, and the University of California in Los Angeles as well as Santa Barbara.

In 1971, Robert Kahn of the BBC made a public demonstration of the uses of the Net. By this time the ARPANET had grown and now connected 23 universities and government research centers around the US. E-mail was introduced and soon became ARPANETs most used facility. In 1972, the Inter Networking Working Group was set up with Vinton Cerf as its first chairman. He was later to be known as the father of the Internet. Robert Kahn and Vinton Cerf developed what eventually became the Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). The first microprocessor based user friendly personal computer (PC) was introduced in 1974. In 1975, ARPANETs administration was transferred to the US Department of Defense (DOD). In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee had created the World Wide Web (WWW) that would help even remote computers and desktops to access the Net.

It didn’t take long for the Web to find and enjoy the effects of a world wide audience. The democratic nature of the web works because its point-and-click accessibility, as well as the absence of technical jargon at most sites, has allowed the computer novices and experts alike to explore and create the Web at their own pace and on their own terms.

Computers@Home, a leading Indian magazine enlists 10 reasons for being on the Internet:
Communicating with people
Finding people with common issues
Finding information
Exchanging Information and Documents
Finding Support Groups
Place to speak freely
Education
Fun and Entertainment
More than just fun and games

The recent global debate over the content regulation of the Internet was obviously the outcome of the number of instances that a lack of regulation has led to. Policing the Internet continues to be a controversial issue in the United States and many other countries because of a potential infringement on free speech. It is also unclear how such laws might be enforced in the free-for-all atmosphere of the Internet.

Internet sites differ in size according to whether it is a personal set of postings by an individual or if it is to be used as an interactive reporting and reference tool for global events. Though there has been a continuous wave of technological breakthroughs in the creative content presentation, the potential for combining graphics, text, video and sound with the various WWW protocols is still being tapped. There is a trend towards building information communities. With the ability to keep track of the number of users, interact with people via chat groups and email, the global community has made a paradigm shift from being passive readers to becoming interactive audiences. This chapter will compare the World Wide Web to other mass media such as newspaper and television and discuss the issues behind the interactive communication media and its pros and cons.

Andrew L. Fry (Vice President, Director of Projects at Free Range Media, Inc) in his abstract titled Publishing in the New Mass Medium: Creating Content on the Internet talks about how Mathew Gray, an MIT student, has attempted to estimate size and growth of the Web using the World Wide Web Wanderer, an Internet automation, and has reported the following results as of early 1994: "Wow, the Web is BIG". His was an attempt to quantify file transfer as a function of traffic, web server sites and of course, number of Internet users. All three are important in defining the Internet as a mass medium. The first, traffic, is a measure of interaction; the second, number of server sites, as a measure of content and the third, number of users, representing audience.

One figure commonly used to estimate the Internet user base is an audience of 20,000,000 to 30,000,000 people with a growth rate of 10% to 20% per month. The figure is derived in formulaic fashion and is the subject of debate, as is demonstrated in the copyrighted article entitled "How Big is the Internet", by Vanderbilt professors Donna L. Hoffman and Thomas P. Novak. This article can be read on-line on www.wired.com. The testimony before the US House of Representatives, Committee on Science, Space and Technology on March 23, 1993 by Vinton Cerf. estimates 100 million users in the foreseeable future. With evident phenomenal growth, it appears that everyone is jumping on to the bandwidth-wagon.

The Internet possesses the unique ability to combine protocols supported by the World Wide Web project to deliver information, communication and interactivity. However the Internet is only the delivery system, just as broadcast is the delivery system for television and radio, and print is the platform for newspapers and magazines. The Internet�s USP is its specificity of types of content available at the click of a button.

Watching television is a cultural phenomenon which can only occur when a large enough proportion of the available audience shares in the viewing of a particular program. But the fund of information pouring into the Web is diluting the core audience.
Broadcast programmes provide information and entertainment to an audience which is referred to as "viewership" or "listenership" and has limited interaction with content providers. It is aided by subscriptions and advertisements. So is the case of publications, where the audience is referred to as readership which interacts with content providers through letters to the editors etc.

Some web sites are delivering topical editorial content through sponsorship e.g HotWIRED, (the first web site to publish materials based on the virtues of the medium that delivers it) produced by WIRED magazine. The audience interacts directly and in real time with the content and content providers. The number of hits that the site has received can be tallied and information flow can be measured. As far as using the Internet as a marketing tool goes, innumerable examples can be cited, e.g. Macmillan Publishing has created an independent business unit which will operate as a virtual bookstore.

Competition for securing audience is gets more fierce. This bodes well for the medium because in order to attract more people to a site, the quality of the information, interaction and user experience will continue to climb as sites compete for viewers.
In order to develop successful, topical programs on the net, Andrew Fry recommends that the site must do three things. First, it must develop a recognizable look and feel (branding). Second, it must maintain a high standard for delivering hard to get or consistently entertaining material (quality of content). And third, it must build, measure, and maintain a community of users i.e. "the audience" or "information community".

The quality and content of the sites on the Web are rated by companies such as Nielson. Ratings for a particular web site will not only consist of number of hits. Number of emails generated from the site, volume of postings at registered and related news groups and of course demographic information generated via questionnaires AND comments.

In a paper based on an in-depth Mosaic Group study of the state of the Internet in China and India (http://som.csudh.edu/fac/lpress/articles/chind.htm), comparison between the Internets in the two countries are based on six dimensions: pervasiveness (users, hosts), geographic dispersion(top-tier political divisions with POPs, number of cities with POPs), sectoral absorption (commercial, education, government, health), connectivity infrastructure (domestic backbone, high-speed access, exchanges, international bandwidth) organizational infrastructure (telecommunication competition, backbone competition, access provider competition, coordinating organizations) and sophistication of use. Factors such as illiteracy, language, government action and programs that encourage Internet penetration such as free-market purchase of PCs India etc are taken into account.

Marshall McLuhan (1960) wrote, "The advent of a new medium often reveals the lineaments and assumptions, as it were, of an old medium" The Internet is a multifaceted mass medium, that is, it contains many different configurations of communication. Its varied forms show the connection between interpersonal and mass communication that has been an object of study since the two-step flow associated the two (Lazarsfeld, Berelson, & Gaudet, 1944). Chaffee and Mutz (1988) have called for an exploration of this relationship that begins "with a theory that spells out what effects are of interest, and what aspects of communication might produce them"

The Internet plays with the source-message-receiver features of the traditional mass communication model. Internet communication takes many forms, from World Wide Web pages operated by major news organizations to Usenet groups discussing folk music to E-mail messages among colleagues and friends. Sources of the messages can range from one person in E-mail communication, to a social group in a Listserv or Usenet group, to a group of professional journalists in a World Wide Web page. The messages themselves can be traditional journalistic news stories created by a reporter and editor, stories created over a long period of time by many people, or simply conversations, such as in an Internet Relay Chat group. The receivers, or audiences, of these messages can also number from one to potentially millions, and may or may not move fluidly from their role as audience members to producers of messages.

The various differences between the tradition communication media and the Internet as the modern medium of communication can be given as below:

Traditional Media
Print media
newspapers, books, magazines, pamphlets.
Many-to-many communcation, effortful, slow, expensive

Broadcast
television, radio
One-to-many, effortful, very expensive

Common carriers
Telephone, postal service
One-to-one, cheap, fast/slow, carriers provide communication medium not content

Internet Communication
Differences to traditional media:
Many-to-many communication ,Fast, cheap, interactive, global scale
Universal Access
Anonymity
Communication without linking personal, physical information.
Reproducibility
Communications (email, newsgroup postings) can be stored and perfectly reproduced.

Implications for notions of property and personal privacy:
Traditional notion of property associated with idea of control. Notion challenged by internet communication.
Traditional notion of privacy associated with short lifetime of our actions in restricted physical space.
Both notions challenged by internet

In their article entitled The Internet as Mass Medium, Merrill Morris and Christine Ogan of the Indiana University talk about the various communication theories as applicable to the e-media. In approaching the study of the Internet as a mass medium, the following established concepts seem to be useful starting points. Some of these have originated in the study of interpersonal or small group communication; others have been used to examine mass media. Some relate to the nature of the medium, while others focus on the audience for the medium.

Critical mass

This conceptual framework has been adopted from economists, physicists, and sociologists by organizational communication and diffusion of innovation scholars to better understand the size of the audience needed for a new technology to be considered successful and the nature of collective action as applied to electronic media use (Markus, 1991; Oliver et al., 1985).

For any medium to be considered a mass medium, and therefore economically viable to advertisers, a critical mass of adopters must be achieved.

 Interactive media only become useful as more and more people adopt, or as Rogers (1986) states, "the usefulness of a new communication system increases for all adopters with each additional adopter" (p. 120). Initially, the critical mass notion works against adoption, since it takes a number of other users to be seen as advantageous to adopt. For example, the telephone or an E-mail system was not particularly useful to the first adopters because most people were unable to receive their messages or converse with them.

Valente (1995) notes that, “the critical mass is achieved when about 10 to 20 percent of the population has adopted the innovation.’’ When this level has been reached, the innovation can be spread to the rest of the social system. Adoption of computers in U.S. households has well surpassed this figure, but the modem connections needed for Internet connection lag somewhat behind.

Because a collection of communication services-electronic bulletin boards, Usenet groups, E-mail, Internet Relay Chats, home pages, gophers, and so forth-comprise the Internet, the concept of critical mass on the Internet could be looked upon as a variable, rather than a fixed percentage of adopters. Fewer people are required for sustaining an Internet Relay Chat conference or a Multi-User Dungeon than may be required for an electronic bulletin board or another type of discussion group. As already pointed out, a relatively large number of E-mail users are required for any two people to engage in conversation, yet only those two people constitute the critical mass for any given conversation. For a bulletin board to be viable, its content must have depth and variety. If the audience who also serve as the source of information for the BBS is too small, the bulletin board cannot survive for lack of content. A much larger critical mass will be needed for such a group to maintain itself-perhaps as many as 100 or more. The discretionary data base, as defined by Connolly and Thorn (1991) is a "shared pool of data to which several participants may, if they choose, separately contribute information" (p. 221). If no one contributes, the data base cannot exist. It requires a critical mass of participants to carry the free riders in the system, thus supplying this public good to all members, participants, or free riders. Though applied to organizations, this refinement of the critical mass theory is a useful way of thinking about Listserv, electronic bulletin boards, Usenet groups, and other Internet services, where participants must hold up their end of the process through written contributions.

Each of these specific Internet services can be viewed as we do specific television stations, small town newspapers, or special interest magazines. None of these may reach a strictly mass audience, but in conjunction with all the other stations, newspapers, and magazines distributed in the country, they constitute mass media categories. So the Internet itself would be considered the mass medium, while the individual sites and services are the components of which this medium is comprised.

Interactivity

This concept has been assumed to be a natural attribute of interpersonal communication, but, as explicated by Rafaeli (1988), it is more recently applied to all new media, from two-way cable to the Internet. From Rafaeli's perspective, the most useful basis of inquiry for interactivity would be one grounded in responsiveness. Rafaeli's definition of interactivity "recognizes three pertinent levels: two-way (noninteractive) communication, reactive (or quasi-interactive) communication, and fully interactive communication" (1988, p. 119). Anyone working to conceptualize Internet communication would do well to draw on this variable and follow Rafaeli's lead when he notes that the value of a focus on interactivity is that the concept cuts across the mass versus interpersonal distinctions usually made in the fields of inquiry. It is also helpful to consider interactivity to be variable in nature, increasing or decreasing with the particular Internet service in question.
Uses and Gratifications

Though research of mass media use from a uses-and-gratifications perspective has not been prevalent in the communication literature in recent years, it may help provide a useful framework from which to begin the work on Internet communication. Both Walther (1992b) and Rafaeli (1986) concur in this conclusion. The logic of the uses-and-gratifications approach, based in functional analysis, is derived from "(1) the social and psychological origins of (2) needs, which generate (3) expectations of (4) the mass media and other sources, which lead to (5) differential patterns of media exposure (or engagement in other activities), resulting in (7) other consequences, perhaps mostly unintended ones" (Blumler and Katz, 1974).

Rosengren (1974) modified the original approach in one way by noting that the "needs" in the original model had to be perceived as problems and some potential solution to those problems needed to be perceived by the audience. Rafaeli (1986) regards the move away from effects research to a uses-and-gratifications approach as essential to the study of electronic bulletin boards (one aspect of the Internet medium). He is predisposed to examine electronic bulletin boards in the context of play or Ludenic theory, an extension of the uses-and-gratifications approach, which is clearly a purpose that drives much of Internet use by a wide spectrum of the population. Rafaeli summarizes the importance of this paradigm for electronic communication by noting uses-and-gratifications' comprehensive nature in a media environment where computers have not only home and business applications, but also work and play functions.

Additionally, the uses-and-gratifications approach presupposes a degree of audience activity, whether instrumental or ritualized. The concept of audience activity should be included in the study of Internet communication, and it already has been incorporated in one examination of the Cleveland Freenet (Swift, 1989).

Social presence and media richness theory

These approaches have been applied to CMC use by organizational communication researchers to account for interpersonal effects. But social presence theory stems from an attempt to determine the differential properties of various communication media, including mass media, in the degree of social cues inherent in the technology. In general, CMC, with its lack of visual and other nonverbal cues, is said to be extremely low in social presence in comparison to face-to-face communication (Walther, 1992a).

Media richness theory differentiates between lean and rich media by the bandwidth or number of cue systems within each medium. This approach (Walther, 1992a) suggests that because CMC is a lean channel, it is useful for simple or unequivocal messages, and also that it is more efficient "because shadow functions and coordinated interaction efforts are unnecessary. For receivers to understand clearly more equivocal information, information that is ambiguous, emphatic, or emotional, however, a richer medium should be used" (p. 57).

Unfortunately, much of the research on media richness and social presence has been one-shot experiments or field studies. Given the ambiguous results of such studies in business and education (Dennis & Gallupe, 1993), it can be expected that over a longer time period, people who communicate on Usenets and bulletin boards will restore some of those social cues and thus make the medium richer than its technological parameters would lead us to expect. As Walther (1992a) argues: "It appears that the conclusion that CMC is less socioemotional or personal than face-to-face communication is based on incomplete measurement of the latter form, and it may not be true whatsoever, even in restricted laboratory settings" (p. 63). Further, he notes that though researchers recognize that nonverbal social context cues convey formality and status inequality, "they have reached their conclusion about CMC/face-to-face differences without actually observing the very non-verbal cues through which these effects are most likely to be performed" (p. 63).

Clearly, there is room for more work on the social presence and media richness of Internet communication. It could turn out that the Internet contains a very high degree of media richness relative to other mass media, to which it has insufficiently been compared and studied. Ideas about social presence also tend to disguise the subtle kinds of social control that goes on the Net through language, such as flaming.

Network Approaches

Grant (1993) has suggested that researchers approach new communication technologies through network analysis, to better address the issues of social influence and critical mass. Conceptualizing Internet communities as networks might be a very useful approach. As discussed earlier, old concepts of senders and receivers are inappropriate to the study of the Internet. Studying the network of users of any given Internet service can incorporate the concept of interactivity and the interchangeability of message producers and receivers. The computer allows a more efficient analysis of network communication, but researchers will need to address the ethical issues related to studying people's communication without their permission.

These are just a few of the core concepts and theoretical frameworks that should be applied to a mass communication perspective on Internet communication. Reconceptualizing the Internet from this perspective will allow researchers both to continue to use the structures of traditional media studies and to develop new ways of thinking about those structures. It is, finally, a question of taxonomy. Thomas Kuhn (1974) has noted the ways in which similarity and resemblance are important in creating scientific paradigms. As Kuhn points out, scientists facing something new "can often agree on the particular symbolic expression appropriate to it, even though none of them has seen that particular expression before" (p. 466). The problem becomes a taxonomic one: how to categorize, or, more importantly, how to avoid categorizing in a rigid, structured way so that researchers may see the slippery nature of ideas such as mass media, audiences, and communication itself.